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STATE OF OHIO 
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 



A Syllabus for the Study of 
Elementary School Subjects 



CONFINED TO THE MOST ESSENTIALS 
SUBJECT MATTER and METHODOLOGY 

(REVISED, 1922) 



Prepared especially for those 
who take the examination for 
temporary elementary teach- 
ers' certificates in Ohio 



BY 

T. HOWARD WINTERS 

INSPECTOR OF TEACHER -TRAINING 



VERNON M. RIEGEL 

DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION 



STATE OF OHIO 
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 



A Syllabus for the Study of 
Elementary School Subjects 



CONFINED TO THE MOST ESSENTIAL 
SUBJECT MATTER and METHODOLOGY 

(REVISED, 1922) 



Prepared especially for those 
who take the examination for 
temporary elementary teach- 
ers' certificates in Ohio 



BY 

T. HOWARD WINTERS 

INSPECTOR OF TEACHER TRAINING 



VERNON M. RIEGEL 

DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION 



Columbus, Ohio : 

The F. J. Heer Printing Co. 

1922 

Bound at State Bindery. 






LIBRARY OF CONuKtSS 
OOOUMflhTw DIVUSIO 



• I 



Lfi) 

(U 

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 



i. Aims in education, (i) Perfecting- the individual as a per- 
son with the best physical condition and ability to use the muscles skil- 
fully, most readiness of attention and other tendencies to mental activity, 
best standards of honesty and other moral qualities, best attitudes to- 
ward others. (2) Improving the individual as a worker, with the 
physical condition and some of the skill and knowledge which will serve 
that end. and with the proper attitude toward work and fellow workers. 
(3) Making the individual a good member of state and society, able to 
help and not be a drawback, by making him a better physical being, pos- 
sessed of knowledge of the state and of society, without too much selfish- 
ness, with sufficient regard for others, and with a determination to make 
the joint effort called the state or society a greater success, more help- 
ful to its members. Evidently in attaining only one of these aims the 
others will be attained in some degree. The third aim includes the first 
two almost entire. Any subject-matter not valuable for these aims with 
the present class and in the present school should not be taught; that 
subject-matter which is must valuable for these aims should have prefer- 
ence. 

2. The child to be taught. A. His pre-school equipment. 1. 
His instincts (read up on this in some .psychology)— some of these have 
been operating ever since birth, others become noticeable only later and 
after he enters school. 2. His knowledge gained at home and else- 
where. This must be considered in trying to get him to add new know- 
ledge to his store, in choosing the words with which we address him, in 
securing his self-activity. 3. His knowledge from previous schools. 
We get a clue to this if we know the curriculum of the earlier grades. 
But we can be sure only by careful tests that he knows any particular 
things. B. His native mental ability. Some idea is gained from opinions 
of former teachers expressed in marks or otherwise. If a new child, we 
get an idea from his first reaction to lessons or exercises. One excellent 
indication is his ability to follow directions which are understood by 
most oi the class. Only scientific testing of all indications taken together 
can make certain the degree of mental ability. Remember there are those 
of more than usual as well as of less than usual ablity. C. His mental 
attitudes, especially obedience, working with others, treating others with 
consideration, orderliness (neatness), promptness, truthfulness. Some 
of these have a moral aspect. They are important for both discipline 
and learning. D. His health. This will not be dealt with further in 
this syllabus, but it is very important that the teacher should know about 
the child's health, especially eyes and ears, also any contagious condition. 

3 



Defects of the senses are sometimes mistaken for dulness or disobedience. 
E. His inclinations or special abilities in lines of study, work and play. 
These can be utilized to get him to learn more in most subjects, and he 
should be helped along these special lines also. 

3. Knowing the subject. Nothing can fully make up for lack 
of knowledge of the subject, especially in grades above the primary, it 
being probable that any teacher knows the facts to be taught to very 
small children. Besides the latter are to be made active and do not learn 
many facts. Knowledge should include (a) a general knowledge, as a 
fair general concept of the world for geography, (b) a special knowledge, 
of the field of discussion for the week or day, (c) a good idea of the 
matter in the text-book, (d) an expansion of important topics by the help 
of information found in other books, magazines or in practices in the 
county or community. Not everything known about the subject may be 
of value for the given class. Choice should depend partly on general 
aims and partly on the experiences of the children. 

4. The considerations in the last of No. 3 are closely related to 
choice of subject matter. The general choice is made by a course which 
the teacher does not control. Yet within the topics prescribed there is 
much room for choice, especially choice of what shall be emphasized. 

5. Getting attention. (Look up the kinds of attention in any 
psychology). Attention and interest depend on each other. We are in- 
terested usually in what we attend to and we usually attend, to what we 
are interested in. Attention depends at first on instincts (see No. 2, A), 
later on one's ideas of the good to come from attending or trouble to be 
avoided which might come from not attending, finally from acquired 
interest in the subject. In one of these three ways attention is secured. 
Through them it is kept, provided there is sufficient satisfaction with the 
results to keep that attention in action against other things to which at- 
tention might be given. A child can hardly keep attention on that in 
which he is having no satisfaction of success. He attends more easily 
if play instinct, rivalry, approbation and other sources of motives keep 
working. 

6. Two kinds of facts. We forget ninety per cent of what we 
once know. But tbere are facts which we need to remember. Such are 
sight words and phonetic elements ; multiplication tables ; the general 
positions of states, of the most important rivers and countries, what are 
nouns and adjectives; certain health facts; etc. Many of these facts 
have a background of other facts which we need not remember fully. 
Such are stories connected with the primary reading charts, how the 
Japanese children live, poems expressing lofty sentiments, stories of 
exploration, arguments of statesmen. It is valuable to be acquainted with 
these things, some children remember one part and some another, but in 
any case all well-ordered information which is once understood makes 



significant what we do remember. So there are facts to retain, and facts 
(though partly forgotten) which make clem what we must retain. 

7. Unrelated facts. Such facts are usually not worth our effort. 
They are hard to get attention to and so hard to acquire. They lack 
the other facts which might make them clear. There will be no natural 
chain of association for their recall. Facts should usually be related to 
other facts within the child's experiences. They should also be related 
to other facts being taught in the same subject and often to those taught 
in other subjects. 

8. Association of ideas. (Read on this subject in some psy- 
chology) . 

9. Drill. Facts to be learned (which we must fully remember) 
have to be fixed by drill. This subject should be studied in some book 
on principles of teaching or on general methods. 

10. Habit formation (involved in drill and other school expe- 
riences). Read in some psychology rules for habit formation. 

11. Concreteness. That is, teaching in terms of particular 
things. In number, two marbles and two marbles are four marbles. 
Later abstract number is taken. In geography, particular deserts and 
mountains and winds rather than general laws or rainfall. Concreteness 
means usually teaching in terms of particulars known and understood 
(at least partly) by the child. 

12. Systematic presentation. Each lesson should have a plan, 
as a rule a plan actually sketched out. (For several very full plans see 
Strayer's A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pages 216-223, and 
Earhart's Types of Teaching, pages 237-263). 

13. Conclusion. Each lesson of an informational character or 
in which some solution of a question is sought should have a conclusion 
in which the important facts or arguments developed are written on the 
board. 

14. Systematic pursuit. Such pursuit by the pupil may be a 
sornewhat different thing from a systematic presentation by the teacher. 
Systematic pursuit of some subject is often attained by the "project 
method," which consists of the proposing of some important question, 
(for instance, why has no Southerner been President since Jackson?), 
finding out sources of information on the question, and bringing in parts 
of the solution by various students to be discussed and put into harmony 
in a final solution. Sometimes the project involves constructing maps 
or charts, sometimes making collections, sometimes putting the question 
to nature in experiments, sometimes compiling records (as of weather, 
sailing, price quotations). 

15. Group efforts. This is suggested in 14. It is to be en- 
couraged as it guides to proper social co-operation. The "socialized 



recitation" is largely a form of group effort. Students recite for the bene- 
fit of one another rather than of the teacher. They largely ask the ques- 
tions of one another. They plan together how to attack the next subject 
and perhaps which of several subjects to attack next. They parcel out 
special topics to investigate. This method is especially valuable in upper 
grade history and in geography in any grade after they have learned to 
use the book. 

16. Assignment of lessons. Read on this in some book on teach- 
ing or management. A good assignment should usually be an outgrowth 
of the lesson just recited and discussed. It should be largely to answer 
questions or to complete thoughts that have arisen. It should be definite, 
there should be time enough taken to give it; it should in many cases 
include some work assigned to individuals or groups only, or larger 
amounts assigned to some pupils who can do more. (See Nos. 15, 24 
and 25.) 

17. Supervised study is a means of showing the students how to 
work on the assignment. It gives help when the difficulties (or at least 
some of them) are met, instead of waiting until the next day, when 
pupils have had the discouragement of being baffled. To arrange for 
supervised study in a geography class which has been having 30 minute 
recitations will usually mean to lengthen the period to 35 or 40 minutes 
— 15 or 20 for recitation and 20 for supervised study. If we do not 
have supervised study we can do much (1) to show pupils how in general 
to study — better read in some book on teaching the sections on "how to 
study" or "the study lesson", and (2) to indicate what to do in studying 
the particular lesson. The latter will be part of the assignment. 

18. The "recitation" itself. (Here, not thinking of drill lessons 
treated above.) (1) It should usually go beyond a repeating of what 
is found in the one book. (2) What is repeated from the book or else- 
where should be thoughts rather than words. (Words which are not 
exact words of book are usually to be preferred, even in rules and defini- 
tions.) (3) Statements should be made for the class rather than the 
teacher. (4) It should be largely by topic (especially in upper grades) 
and not responses to questions requiring a few words for their answtrs. 
(5) On the work the students were to prepare they should do the talking 
rather than the teacher. (6) There should be variety, as by use of maps, 
blackboard sketches or statements written on the blackboard, gestures 
or other acting, showing of pictures. (7) Opportunity should be given 
to as many as possible according to their abilities. (8) There should be a 
summing up of the lesson. (9) Errors in English should be corrected. 
(10) There should be no fault-finding; it takes the thought from the les- 
son. If there must be some, let it be when the recitation is over and the 
assignment is to be made. (11) The recitation should usually begin with 
a brief review or a drill on what must be retained of earlier lessons, 
especially those things which underlie the present lesson. 



19. The topic method. This is sometimes according to topical 
headings in the book, but better topics placed on the board the day be- 
fore, or still better topics of the pupils' own organization. The last ap- 
proaches both the project method and the socialized effort if the organ- 
ization is by a group. Topical recitations should be supplemented by any 
questions necessary to make sure of clearness or lead to correction of 
errors. 

20. Questioning. The questioning should not deprive the chil- 
dren of the opportunity or necessity of thinking. The questions should 
almost never be a set of questions printed in a book. They shoutd seldom 
be a set written on the blackboard. They should be well-distributed; if 
possible every one should be called upon. It is better to call on the children 
promiscuously rather than in order, unless in rapid reviews. There 
should be a real development of the subject involved in the series of 
questions. (Better read on questioning in some book on principles.) 

21. Exposition and illustration. The teacher needs to under- 
stand the subject thoroughly so that at proper times she can make more 
clear or ample the class's concept of it. For instance, if he is master of 
the subject he can usually make more clear the value of the establishment 
of national banks during the Civil War than any small history does. 
He can show better than the books the great value of Java to the civil- 
ized world. Again he can illustrate principles or rules to make them 
clear. The illustrations should be sufficiently simple. The teacher some- 
times needs to be careful not to spend too much time illustrating and 
amplifying and not to tell all he knows. 

22. Reviews. There should be more or less constant review 
(drill) on the things which must be retained. (Be careful what you put 
into that class.) Reviews of other matter should not be a mere repeti- 
tion of the work as gone over before but a "fresh" view of it, with some 
changes of plan, outside material and devices for illustration and reci- 
tation exercises. It should on the whole be less inclusive and more rapid 
than the original treatment. 

23. Examinations. Most school districts have set examinations 
at the ends of terms. The best preparation of the students for these will 
be the best assignments, recitations, and reviews from day to day with- 
out thought of the examinations. At least this is true if the examining 
authority does not ask on details of small value which should not be 
stressed in instruction, such as obscure capitals, cities, boundaries, bays, 
dates, battle-lines, names of muscles, ethical dative, etc. Examinations 
not at the end of the term are valuable to guide teachers in instruction. 
Many prefer to give brief examinations when principal topics have been 
completed, as soils in agriculture, the digestive system in physiology. 
These may prove the need of further instruction. Written examinations 
have advantages over oral. 



8 

2\. Individual differences. Pupils differ in (i) native, heredi- 
tary ability (2) acquired knowledge and skill gained outside the school 
(3) the same gained within the school (but in respect to which all have 
had about the same opportunity) (4) attitudes, including industry, 
obedience to orders, disposition to work with others, considering immedi- 
ate ends only, etc. (5) physical strength and strength of eyes, keenness 
of hearing, nerve control and perfection of speech organs. Difference 
in hereditary (and other) abilities are in both general and special abilities. 
As a rule there will be several children in a school grade who can work 
twice as fast and twice as correctly as several others. Some hints as to 
treatment of individuals in the recitation and assignment have been given 
above. There is not space for more in this syllabus. Mental tests are 
being used a great deal to tell how able children are and also in just 
what the unusually great or small ability is. 

25. Abilities in school subjects. Standard tests have been de- 
vised to see how children stand with reference to each other and to other 
schools in ability to add, to make verb forms, to get thought from read- 
ing, etc. Some of these determine further the exact causes of weak- 
nesses. These are most valuable as the causes can be met and the weak- 
nesses remedied in many cases. The remedial measures are most valu- 
able. (For the greatest help in this line to be found in a book read the 
remedial measures for defects in certain subjects, especially reading, 
found in Monroe's Measuring the Results of Teaching.) 

26. Moral education. The teacher is not doing the most for her 
students who does not create an admiration for beautiful character, 
self-sacrifice, honesty, fairness, etc. History and literature (including 
reading) give the best opportunities for this, but the happenings of the 
school often give them also. Read paragraphs on moral education in 
some book on general methods or principles. (A splendid more exten- 
sive discussion is Engleman's Moral Education in School and Home.) 

27. Appreciation. The teacher should have a taste for good 
music, art and literature, for nature and neatness, and strive to develop 
such a taste in pupils. Moral education is partly character appreciation. 
The teaching in a school is partly a failure if it does not result in an 
appreciation of the subjects of study, of good reading and many other 
worthy things, including the worthiness of work and service. 

28. School housekeeping. This is related to appreciation. It 
is important^to include items that pertain to (1) health (2) neatness (3) 
protection or preservation of property (4) beauty. The effect of a dis- 
orderly or unattractive school is bad on the mental reactions of children 
which depend a good deal on their states of feeling. The housekeeping 
as well as some other routine work can be passed over to pupils in 
part, especially to committees of pupils which are changed from time to 
time. Such duties are (1) marking the roll (2) caring for the black- 



board (3) tending the heater (4) caring for ventilation (5) inspecting 
desks (6) placing library books and supplies (7) sharpening pencils (8) 
putting certain material on the board (9) passing papers (10) caring 
for flowers (11) posting work or decorations. Efforts should be made 
to improve the exterior of the school also, including bettering the play- 
ground and planting, especially planting hardy shrubs and trees. 

29. Unruly pupils. The most important aspects of this problem 
which belong to principles of teaching are those which have to do with 
enlisting all the energy of the child in good things, appealing to his 
instincts and interests, substituting good goals of such instincts as curi- 
osity, acquisitiveness and pugnacity for unworthy ones, giving satisfac- 
tions of some kind as the result of work (especially a wise distribution 
of praise), creating a morale which carries the school over interruptions 
and distractions. But a teacher should read some good book on discipline 
or management both for suggestions on how to do these things and ad- 
vice on what to do in cases that are not successfully handled in the 
ordinary way. Such books give suggestions on organization and smooth 
systematic routine management also. 

30. The people. The attitude of the people conditions in a 
degree the success with their children. We can best secure their co-oper- 
ation through the community meeting in which the needs and welfare of 
the school are discussed. This question really belongs outside the realm 
of principles of teaching. All books on rural education and life give 
help in planning community meetings. 

31. Equipment. The best work is conditioned on having suffi- 
cient books, maps, drill cards, charts, pictures and other aids. Without 
these we cannot apply our principles of teaching to the best advantage. 



ARITHMETIC 



The student should use both a book on methods of teaching arith- 
metic and any good grammar grade arithmetic. The first 49 numbered 
topics should be taken up with a methods book. 

1. The general aims of arithmetic. 

2. Topics best omitted. 

3. General directions for efficient work. 

4. Learning to count and the names of figures. 

5. Order of development of primary addition facts (that is adding 
two numbers, neither larger than 10). 

6. Adding columns. Checking. 

7. Primary subtraction ideas. Taking away and borrowing. 

8. Relation of multiplication to addition. 

9. Explanation of multiplication with multiplier of two figures. 

10. Relation of division to multiplication. 

1 1 . Idea of one third, etc. 

12. Three stages in learning short division (i)one figure in quotient 
and no remainder (2) one figure in quotient and remainder (3) two or 
more figures in quotient — without or with remainder. 

13. Long division process. Estimating quotient. 

14. Number games: (a) as to place for playing; (b) as to nature. 
15. Essentials of a scoring game. 

16. Learn three motor games, three out of school games, and four 
more games. Learn so you could start children on them. 

17. Explanation of notation of fractions. Emphasize idea of de- 
nominator as that which shows — what? 

18. Three ideas in a fraction : one or more of the equal parts of a 
whole, the division of numerator by denominator, the ratio of numerator 
to denominator. 

19. Addition and subtraction of fractions with easy numbers for 
common denominators. 

20. Explanation of rules for multiplying fractions by fraction. 

21. Division of fraction by whole number. 

22. Division of fraction by fraction: (a) meaning; (b) explanation 
of inverting divisor. 

23. Explanation of decimal notation. 



24 

25 
26 
27 
28 



Multiplying decimal by whole number. 
Dividing decimal by 10, 100, 1000. 
Multiplying decimal by decimal. 
Dividing decimal by whole number. 
Dividing decimal by decimal. 

10 



II 

29. Changing fraction to decimal. 

30. Meaning and need of per cent. 

31. The three problems of percentage : finding percent of given num- 
ber : finding what percent one number is of another (get good method 
from some methods book) : third as follows — Give a number which is 
a certain percent of an unknown number ; to find the unknown number : 
divide the given number by the number representing the percent; the 
result is one percent of the unknown number ; then multiply by 100 and 
you have the unknown number. Caution — if the per cent is given, say 
18 per cent, be careful to divide by 18 and not by .18 if you are going 
to multiply by 100 to get the unknown number. (But note that if you 
divide by .18 you have the result without multiplying by 100). 

32. Kinds of profit and loss problems : profit what percent of cost, 
profit what percent of selling price, price at which to sell to make given 
percent of profit on cost, same on selling price. 

33. Simple interest. Work several problems of your own. Be con- 
fident you are right because you have checked your work and because 
your answers are reasonable. For instance if I tried to find interest on 
$425 for 10 months at 5 per cent and got $177.08 or $1.77 or $35.42 I 
would know something was wrong as the interest for a year would be 
around $20 and 10 months is less but not much less. 

34. Bank discount ; meaning of proceeds. 

35. Finding proceeds of interest-bearing note. 

36. Occasions for teaching denominate numbers. 

2)7- Operation of reduction of such upward and downward. 

38. Why do we need to add, etc., denominate numbers? 

39. Develop finding area of rectangle. The "erroneous statements" 
(inches by inches make square inches, etc.) which we are told to avoid, 
while erroneous, strictly speaking, are forms of statement understood 
and used by everybody in practical life and are economical forms for 
written work. I have the pupils use these. 

40. Area of parallelogram and triangle. 

41. Explanation of finding volume of rectangular solid. 

42. Types of problems to motivate drill. 

43. Wording primary problems. 

44. Why problems are difficult. 

45. What is a concrete problem to William? 

46. Importance of checking. 

47. Three types of arithmetic lessons : developing new facts, drill, 
application of principles. 

48. Repetition of drills. 

49. Means of securing attention. 

The topics to this point pertain mostly to general ai-mJ and to 
methods of presenting the arithmetic facts and processes. The remainder 



12 

have to do more with the solving of problems by the reader of this 
syllabus. 

50. Practice in addition of whole numbers. Directions : Always 
add a column down, set the sum (not just the last figure of it) out to the 
right, immediately add the same column upward and so check the result ; 
by referring to numbers set out at right you can see what the carry 
figures are at any later time; in adding, if the sum of two consecutive 
numbers is 9 or 10 always add 9 or 10 and not the separate consecutive 
numbers; you should be able likewise to handle 11 and three numbers 
making 10. For example the addition of 927, 379, 756, 837, 924, no, 
854, 965 and 344 should run — 16, 22, 33, 42, 46; set out 46; add up- 
ward — 9, 13, 24, 30, 39, 46; check 46 at right; put down 6; next column 
— 13, 23, 24, 35, 39 ; set out 41 ; up (getting 4 as carry figure from check 
list at right) — 14, 19, 22, 25, 30, 39; check 39; put down 9, etc. 

51. Addition of decimals. Chief point is that decimal points must 
be one under the other. 

52. Practice in subtraction of whole and decimal numbers. Always 
prove by adding subtrahend and remainder. 

53. Multiplication and division of whole numbers. Practice by 
multiplying two numbers and then dividing product by one of them to 
get the other. Watch out for case of zeros in multiplier and quotient ; 
as 3143 X 407, and 168504 -r- 84 (quotient is 2006), and 1109563-=- 137 
(quotient is 8099). 

54. Multiplication of decimals. Master rule for "places" in prod- 
uct. Also see the reason of it; if .1 is multiplied by .1, that means a 
tenth of a tenth, which of course is a hundredth (.01) ; if .4 is multiplied 
by .4, the result is 4 times as much as .4 X -i — the latter is .04, the 
former .16. Here should be included also multiplication of whole num- 
bers with decimals annexed as 48.3 X 2.5 ; 362.5 X 4.68. 

55. Division of decimals (and whole numbers with decimals an- 
nexed). Never start such a problem until yoti have annexed o's enough 
to make at least as many decimal places in the dividend as in the divisor. 

56. Division of whole number with decimal results; as 4 by 5, 
3 by 2 ; 1 by 3, 5 by 8, 13 by 42. Three of these given will come out even, 
if carried far enough, the other 2 will not. In the latter cases to get the 
result correct to a given number of figures it is necessary to carry the 
work on beyond the desired number, and then raise the last figure of the 
given number by one if the next is 5 or over. 13-^-42 correct to two 
figures is .31 and not .30. The same principle applies to all problems not 
coming out even if we mean to get decimals in the results. 

57. Reduction of fractions. The prime thing to remember is that 
one always contains five fifths, seven sevenths, etc. Then 2 contains 
twice as many fifths or sevenths. Then any seven sevenths or five fifths 
reduce to one, fourteen sevenths or ten fifths to two, etc. The next 
thing to remember is that one fourth is half as large as a half, and so one 



13 

half is two fourths; that one fourth is three times as large as one twelfth, 
so three fourths equals nine twelfths. Think of such actual value rela- 
tionships and not solely the symbols. So do such problems as these; 
Reduce 3 5/9 to 9ths ; reduce 18/3 to a whole number; reduce 2.7/7 to a 
mixed number; reduce 3/4, 2/3, 5/6, and 1/2 so that all will have like 
denominators. (This last involves the perception that all may be reduced 
to twelfths. The lowest common denominator if under 100 should always 
be seen after a little examination of the figures. It is hardly worth while 
to teach a method of finding it). 

58. Addition and subtraction of fractions. It is necessary to have 
them all in eighths, sixths, twelfths, twentieths, or whatever common de- 
nominator they can all be reduced to ; the process is then between the 
numerators; the sum or remainder with the old common denominator can 
often be reduced to a mixed number or simpler fraction. The numerator 
and denominator of a fraction can be divided both at the same time by 
the same number, for dividing the numerator decreases the number of 
parts taken and dividing the denominator correspondingly increases the 
size of each part. Apply to reducing 36/81, 12/16, 20/35, 2 /4&- Why 
can it not apply to reducing 4/9, or 25/36 or 12/35 ? 

59. Multiplication of fractions: (a) fraction by whole number; 
(b) fraction by fraction; (c) several fractions together; (d) mixed 
number by whole number; (e) mixed number by fraction. There are 
two ways of doing (a) — 1, multiply numerator only and then reduce; 
2. take out common factors of multiplier and denominator (that is, 
cancel) and then multiply numerator by what is left of whole number 
and write that product over what is left of denominator and then reduce 
to mixed number (if over unity). Cancellation is nearly always em- 
ployed in (b) and (c) ; if we have 1/2 X 2/3 X 3/4 it is just the same in 
effect to multiply the 1/2 by 2, divide that by 3, multiply that by 3, and 
divide that by 4 as to perform the cancellation, or to multiply all numer- 
ators together and all denominators together and reduce the new fraction 
(product) thus formed, (d) is best performed by multiplying whole 
number and fraction separately and adding results, (e) is best done 
by reducing mixed number first to fraction. 

60. Division of fractions: (a J fraction by whole number; (b) 
fraction by fraction; (c) whole number by fraction; (d) mixed number 
by whole number. A mixed number seldom needs to be divided by a 
fraction. In a, b and c we may "invert the divisor" and multiply (can- 
celling if we can). In d, divide the whole number part, reduce the re- 
mainder to same terms as fractional part, add in numerator of fractional 
part, divide as fraction by whole number, annex result to< whole number 
in quotient. For example 6262/3-^6; partial quotient 104; remainder 2, 
making 6/3 ; add to 2/3 making 8/3. 8/3 -~ 6 = 8/3 X 1/6 = (after 
cancelling) 4/9; result 1044/9. 



14 

6i. Division of whole numbers when there are remainders. Unless 
a decimal result is desired write the remainder over the divisor, reduce 
the fraction to lowest terms and write the resulting fraction with the 
whole number part of the quotient to make the complete quotient which 
is a mixed number. 

62. Adding mixed numbers. Fraction parts are to be added sep- 
arately and their sum (after reduction) then added in. 

63. Subtracting a mixed number from another, or from a whole 
number, or a fraction from a mixed or whole number. In these it is often 
necessary to borrow: as, take 14 1/3 from 16 1/4. The fractional parts 
must be dealt with first. Here 4/12 are to be taken from 15/12 (3/12 
plus borrowed 12/12, the 16 having been reduced in the borrowing. 

64. Per cent — meaning. Always think a certain per cent as so 
many hundredths except in the cases in 65. Further think of determin- 
ing the per cent of a number by multiplying it by the number of per 
cent expressed as a decimal ( except as in 65). That is 6 per cent of 280 
is .06 X 280; 22% of $436.48 is .22 X $436.48, the result being preserved 
to the nearest cent only ($96.03, not $96.0256 or $96.02). 

65. Learn the "aliquot parts" --50% = x / 2 , 25% = Y\, 75% = }i, 
20% = 1/5, etc.; 10% = 1/10, etc.; 5% = 1/20; 162/3% = 1/6, etc.; 
12^% = ^, etc.; 6j4j% =1/16; 1/3 = 331/3%, etc. You should 
complete the list so as to have equivalents for 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, 3/10, 7/10, 
9/ IO » 5/6, 3/ 8 > 5/8, 7/8, 2/3. You should know or be able to construct 
all these instantly, going from per cents to fractions or fractions to per 
cents. Then always think 30% as 3/10, 162/3% as 1/6, 12^% as 1/8. 
When the base and any of these per cents are given, turn per cent to 
fraction and multiply. 

66. Making out bills. 

67. Trade discount — one discount. It is simply taking away a cer- 
tain per cent from a bill. If there are two discounts, as "20% and 
I2y 2 %", it is simply taking one per cent from the bill and then another 
from the bill left. Example : Bought 400 gross tacks at $6.25, 30% and 
i2y 2 % off. Gross amount of bill, $2500. 3/10 off is $750 off, $1750 
left; y 8 off is $218.75 off (you should be able to do that by short division), 
$1531.25 left as net amount of bill. There are often 2% off for cash, a 
somewhat different kind of trade discount from that which is for reduc- 
tions from quoted prices. Always calculate 2% by multiplying by 2 and 
pointing off 2 places. 2% off $37.42 is counted 75c off. 

68. Avoirdupois weight — ability to reduce quickly from pounds 
to ounces, ounces to pounds, tons to pounds, pounds to tons. Meaning 
of long ton. Weight of bushel of wheat, oats, ear corn, shelled corn, coal. 

69. Finding period between two dates. It is necessary to know the 
months by their numbers, and to resort to borrowing; as to find the 
period from Dec. 11, 1917 to Mar. 2, 1921. We think 



192 1 


3 


minus 1907 


12 


then 1920 


14 


minus 1907 


12 



IS 

2 then 192 1 2 32 
11 minus 1907 12 11 

32 

11 and so 13 yr. 2 mo. 21 da. 

70. Long measure. Do not neglect to learn number of feet in a 
mile and number of rods in a mile. Reduction of inches, feet, yards, any 
one to another. If you are to reduce 17 feet to yards the result is not 
5 yd. 2 ft. but 5 2/3 yd. 

71. Square measure. Do not neglect the acre. The side of a 
square acre is not any even number of feet or yards or rods. It is about 
209 feet. But a piece of ground 4 rd. wide and 40 rd. long, or 8 rd. wide 
end 20 rd. long, or 10 rd. wide and 16 rd. long contains an acre. Learn 
number of acres in 1 sq. mi. 

J2. Area of a triangle. Be sure you know how to draw the altitude 
of a parallelogram or triangle. 

y2>- Cubic measure. Remember the 1728 and the 2j. The dimen- 
sions of an excavation are commonly given in feet and inches, but the 
dirt removed is estimated in "yards" (cubic yards). Find volume of 
excavation by reducing feet and inches to feet and decimals (approximate 
if not even), multiply the three numbers (representing the three dimen- 
sions in feet) ; divide by 27. Example : Find yards in excavation 85 ft. 
2 in. by 30 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 9 in. 85.17 X 30.5 X 8.75 = 22729.7, ap- 
proximately, cu. ft., making 841.8 cu. yd. 

74. Board foot — meaning. Finding number of board feet. 

75. Learn either cu. in. or approximate cu. ft. in a bushel. Be able 
to find number of bushels in a bin. Better find cu. ft. as in JT>- But if 
you are going to use the number of cu. in. in a bushel reduce all to inches 
and work out the cubic inches in the bin and divide. 

76. Liquid and dry measure. 

jj. Meaning of square of a number, cube of a number, third power, 
fourth power, fifth power — how indicated. 

78. Square root of 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144. (Ob- 
tain by recognizing two equal factors). 

How square root is indicated. 

79. Cube root of 8, 27, 64, 125, 216. (Recognize the three equal 
factors). How cube root is indicated. 

80. Circumference of a circle. Learn formula. How to find 
diameter when circumference is given. 

81. Area of a circle. Learn some formula for this. How to find 
diameter when circumference is given. 

82. Finding contents of a can (cylinder) in cu. in. It should be 
clear that it is area of base times length (or height). 

83. Work problems ; as if A can do it in 4 days, B in 5 days and C 
in 3 days, in how many can they do it together? (All do 1/4 plus 1/5 
plus 1/3 in 1 day). 



i6 

84. Number of things that can be bought for a certain amount, as 
number of meals at 40c for $12.80. 

85. Rate of speed, as miles per hour of a train that goes 608 miles 
m 10 hr. 55 min. Here divide by 10 11/12, that is by 131/12. Answer 
should be with decimal (correct to tenths) — 55.7 mi. per hr. 

86. Number of objects in a given area, as tiles 3 by 5 inches in a 
hearth 6 J /> ft. by 3 ft. This is mere division after denominations are 
alike. 

87. Averages. There must always be a figure for every one of the 
things considered in the average. For example : five students solved all of 
20 problems. 2 solved 19 of them, t solved 17 of them, 5 solved 16, 4 
si lived 15, 5 solved 14, 6 solved 13, 1 solved 10, and 1 five. What is the 
average number solved? We must add 100, 38, 17, 80, 60, 78, 10 and 5 
and not just 20, ig, 17, 16. 15, 14. 13, 10 and 5; and we must divide the 
sum by 30 and not by 9. 

88. The division of the circle into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 
minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. 

89. The earth rotates once in 24 hours, therefore 360 degrees 
divided by 24, or 15 degrees in one hour. So a difference of 15 degrees in 
longitude makes a difference of 1 hour in time. Philadelphia is at 75 
degrees latitude ( west of Greenwich) and its time is one hour faster than 
that of St. Louis at 90 degrees, 2 hours faster than that of Denver at 105 
degrees, 3 hr. faster than that of Los Angeles at 120 degrees. For con- 
venience most places in the l". S. use Philadelphia, St. Louis or Los 
Angeles time. Philadelphia (Eastern) time is used in about one third of 
Ohio and St. Louis (Central) time in the rest. But some people still use 
sun time which at Columbus is about half an hour faster than Central 
time. Why? Use a globe to figure out difference of time between Cairo, 
Egypt and Philadelphia. 

90. Problems of these types : (a) A, B and C are to share 875 
bu. corn. If B's share is twice A's and C's twice B's find share of each. 
(b) A, B and C are to divide a profit of $990. If B's share is one half 
A's and C's is two thirds B's find share of each. (c) A, B, and C 
divided a herd of cattle. A's share was one half C's and B's was three 
times A's. B's share was 54 head. How many in herd? (There are 
many variations of these general types of problems, not often met in 
practical life, but often in arithmetics, and important as requiring exact 
interpretation of language, at least). 

91. Problems of the types: (a) If 4 oranges cost 30 cents how 
much do three dozen cost? (b) If 4 pencils can be bought for 25c 
find the cost of enough for a class of 35 pupils, (c) If 3000 cu. ft. 
of gas cost $1.35 how much was used for the bill to be $7.65? (In such 
cases as a and c it is best not to find cost of one. In a see how many 
times as many three dozen are. In c find cost of 1000 cu. ft). 



17 

92. Problems of the types: (a) A's farm contains 5^2 acres more 
than B's. The area of both farms is 162 acres. Find area of each, (b) 
A raised io^4 tons more hay than B, and C 19 tons less than A. All 
three raised 176500 lb. How many tons did each raise? This last is best 
done by algebra; by arithmetic we must think of the total (88^4 tons) 
as composed of (1) what B raised; (2) what B raised increased by 10^2 
tons; (3) what B raised increased by 10^2 tons and then diminished 
by 19 tons, which is the same as what B raised diminished by 8^ tons; 
(4) then the sum of these, making 3 times what B raised increased by 2 
tons. Then 8654 tons is 3 times what B raised, etc. (c) A, B and C 
furnish a car load of lumber. A furnished .4 of it, B furnished 1000 
board feet more than C. B and C together furnished 7200 board feet. 
Find number of board feet loaded by each. (Last statement gives first 
step like (a) ; also 7200 must be .6 of all, hence 3/2 of A's). 

93. If a boat can go 17 miles an hour down-stream and 8 miles an 
hour up-stream what is the rate of the current? (Average of 2 is rate 
in still water). 

94. Side of rectangle problems as: (a) A rectangle contains 84 
sq. in. One side is 7 in. Find the other dimension and the perimeter, 
(b) A rectangular field contains 4 A. One side is 32 rods. Find length 
of fence around it. (Reduce A to sq. rd. There will be 2 sides of 32 rds. 
and 2 of 20 rds. each). 

95. The various cases of profit and loss, as mentioned in No. 32. 
If goods are sold at a profit (in per cent on cost) the amount for which 
they are sold is 100%, plus the per cent of profit. If the profit is 35% 
(of cost) the cost is 100/135 of selling price. If goods are sold at a loss 
(in per cent on cost) the amount for which they are sold is 100% minus 
the per cent of loss. If the loss is 35% (of cost) the cost is 100/65 °f 
the selling price. 

96. Two houses were sold for $5860. On one the gain was 30% of 
the cost, on the other the loss was 20% of the cost. The gain on the two 
was $630. Find cost of each. (Not much sense in having such a problem, 
but it is well to know how to solve it). Solution: The cost of the two 
was $5860 — $630, or $5230. If 30% of one minus 20% of the other 
makes $630, then 10/3 of that gives 100% of one minus 662/3% °f the 
other makes $2100. But 100% of one plus 100 of the other gives $5230. 
Then the difference between taking 662/3% of the cheaper house away, 
and adding 100% of it on is $5230 — $2100 = $3130. That is 1662/3% 
of cheaper house is $3130. 5/3 of value of that house is $3130, and 3/3 
of its value $1878, etc. 

97. Per cent of increase (or decrease) : (a) Last year George 
raised 47 bu. corn to the acre. This year 82.5 bu. Find per cent of in- 
crease. (Problem is really 35.5 is what per cent of 47). (b) Last year 
Emma raised 75 bu. tomatoes on her acre. This year, 41 bu. Find the 

2 



per cent of decrease. Problem is really 34 is what per cent of 75; work 
out to nearest tenth of one per cent always when per cent is to be cal- 
culated ; here answer is 45.3% < take care not to get it .453. Put 45-3% 
equals .453). 

98. Tax rate : How many mills necessary to yield $5850 on dupli- 
cate of $487,595? (Remember a mill is a tenth of a cent; hence a tenth 
of one per cent on a duplicate in dollars. It is customary to reckon rates 
to the hundre'th of the mill. — In such question you should see instantly 
that 1 mill will raise about $487, or exactly $487-595- Divide the $5850 
by that; result 11.9981 drop 8, revise figure before by raising it one, gives 
12 mills). 

99. Problems of the types: (a) A farmer raised 20 bu. wheat on 
.82 A. At this rate how much would he raise per A? (Divide the 20 
by the .82 ; that is 20.0000 by .82 ; drop last figure and revise one before it; 
gives 24.39 or 2 4-4! tn ' s is the same as dividing by 82 and multiplying 
result by 100. (b) 442 posts (about equally distanced) are counted in a 
stretch of 1.34 mi. How many are there to the mile? 

100. Draw a diagram of pavement around the outside of a rec- 
tangular area. Note that it contains two rectangles as long as the area 
enclosed and as wide as the pavement; two are as long as the area en- 
closed is wide and as wide as the pavement and. in addition 4 square 
corners of the width of the pavement. For instance, if a square 400 ft. 
long and 200 ft. wide is surrounded by an 8 foot walk the area of the 
walk is 400 X 8 X 2, plus 200 X 8 X 2, plus 8x8X4. But this is often 
reduced to square yards in making estimates. By what do you divide the 
area in square feet? 

101. Proportion: Get the idea that 5 has the same relation to 10 
as 2 to 4, and that it may be expressed 5:10 = 2:4. Observe that we 
might be asked 5:10 as 3: what? We see the answer is 6. A rule for 
getting it (if not obvious) is to multiply the 3 and 10 and divide the re- 
sult by 5. So, 16:3 = 24: ?, gives 72 -s- 16 = 4^. But the difficult thing 
is not to solve proportions but to get them correctly stated. You must 
look in your arithmetic for more examples than these three: (a) If a 
club wins 51 games out of 96, how many victories in 32 games at same 
rate? 96:32 = 51:? The first and second terms should represent like 
things, here games played. The first should correspond to the third — 
the 51 is 51 out of the 96. (b) A's majority in 342 districts is 273. 
What will it be in 1140 districts if it continues to be at same rate? 
342:1140 = 273:? (c) If there are rations enough in a storehouse for 
608 men for 26 days how many days will they last 1000 men ? Here the 
more the men the fewer the days • — an inverse proportion, so not 
608:1000=26:? but 1000:608=26:? Likewise if 24 laborers can finish 
a field in 70 days in how many days can 40 laborers finish it? Or, if 184 



19 

fleets of 10 barges each can move a certain mass of coal, how many 
fleets of 1 6 barges each can do it? (16:10= 184:?) 

102. Dividing a sum or total according to a certain ratio: as $100 
into parts as 2 is to 6. Get the total number of equal parts (here 8) and 
then give each its due number. Example : $3685 freight is to be divided 
according to mileages, 128 miles, 62 miles and 77 miles. Find share of 
each line. Add and get 267 miles. One gets 128/267, another 62/267 
and the other 77/267. The three should make the $3685. 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



1. The aims are (a) to stimulate expression, and thought which 
goes with it, (b) to secure grammatical correctness of expression, (c) 
to establish correct written forms, (d) to introduce the child to the 
mechanical construction of language. Only the last is strictly grammar. 
It is the least important aim. 

2. The first aim is attained (a) by getting children to tell of their 
individual affairs or observations, (b) by discussing common experiences, 
as what all observe as in a walk with a teacher, (c) by telling stories, 
asking questions in connection with them, and if simple enough getting 
the children to retell the stories, (d) same as (c) but on reading lessons. 
These steps may be necessary even in higher grades. 

3. The second aim is attained by (a) correcting errors in all 
classes ; care should be taken not to be too critical at first, so as to stop 
the flow of thought, (b) language games, (c) memorizing selections 
(sometimes overdone; its value for the purpose here mentioned is 
limited), (d) having pupils criticize each other's language, (e) express- 
ing stories or reading lessons by means of dramatization, (f) requiring 
full sentence answers ; this should not be an unvarying rule in all lessons, 
but all answers should be clear-cut. 

4. Be able to tell at least 5 good stories ; be ready to name that 
many more. Be able to describe well at least three language games. 

5. Correct written form should be developed largely on the black- 
board. The children should first learn to copy correctly, then to write 
from dictation. Finally little stories of their own should be written. 
These might at first be one-sentence stories (in the lowest grades). These 
may stimulate expression at the same time. Then statements arising from 
nature-study or other lessons should be written ; these should not be all 
in identical words; the work is probably not a success either as nature- 
study or as language if they are. 

6. Letter-writing may begin as early as the second grade. The 
teacher must find something that they want to write about. Dates and 
addresses may be omitted before the third grade, and addresses before 
the fourth. Be sure you can write dates and addresses correctly. Some 
teachers cannot. Be sure of both full and abbreviated forms. 

7. In second or third grade, compositions of several sentences tell- 
ing what they have seen (description), or what they have done or what 
has happened (narration) are to be written. The papers should be in 
correct form. Be sure that you can show the proper way to place a com- 
position on a page, and the correct form for letters and for envelope 
addresses. 

20 



21 

8. Children must be drilled extensively ( by games, formally, orally, 
on blackboard, etc.) on certain common errors. Write several sentences 
for each of the following to show that you are correct on the usage in 
question: (i) its and it's (2) there and their (3) to and too (4) the 
abbreviations for has not, have not, is not (5) cannot and its abbreviation 
(6) won't (7) don't and doesn't (8) abbreviation for he will and they 
will (9) distinction between "have got" and simply "have" (10) learn 
used for teach. 

9. Errors in verb forms are so common as to require early and 
often-repeated drill on many of them. The following list may be too 
complete for some communities and not enough for others. Be sure you 
know and use correctly the past tense (which is the second principal 
part) and the participle (the third principal part). The latter is used 
after have, has, had, and in the passive forms. If you are uncertain of 
these parts of any of these verbs or of their meaning look these up: 
get, go, take, sit, set, lie, lay, wear, see, do, come, give, throw. 

10. The apostrophe: rules for (1) singular possessive of words not 
ending in s (2) singular possessive of words ending in s (3) plural 
possessive of words not ending in s (4) plural possessive of words end- 
ing in s. Convert some possessives into of phrases. 

11. Be able to put a stanza of poetry down in correct form. For 
instance, the first stanza of "A Psalm of Life." 

12. Know how a quotation is marked ; also, a quotation within 
a quotation ; also a quotation continuing from paragraph to paragraph or 
from stanza to stanza. 

13. Get distinction between direct and indirect question. (He 
asked him what he was doing there. He said to him, "What are you 
doing here?") 

14. Learn rules for forming plurals of most words ending in y and 
in o ; also for certain ones ending in f . 

15. Learn to conjugate the word "see" in the "simple form" in the 
indicative modes in both voices, all tenses, both numbers and the three 
persons, naming each tense before giving it. Give in an orderly manner, 
starting thus: The conjugation of the verb see in the Indicative Mode: 
Active Voice, Present Tense, Singular Number, First Person, I see — 
Second Person, thou seest or you see — Third Person, he sees (or she 
sees or it sees) — Plural Number, First Person, we see — Second Person, 
you see (or ye see) — Third Person, they see: Past Tense, Singular Num- 
ber, First Person, I saw — and so on. Ordinarily one would not repeat 
First Person, Second Person, Third Person, as they always come in this 
order. In writing the conjugation there may be still more abbreviation. 
But be sure you can conjugate clear through the indicative mode, giving 
passive voice also. Learn to do this so you can give the tenses in order 
without thinking much. 



22 

i6. Am is an intransitive verb. The test of an intransitive verb is, 
if it is in the active, "Does this verb in this sentence have an object that 
it is represented as affecting or that it requires to complete its meaning?" 
Any verb in the passive is transitive when used in the active. Learn to 
conjugate am. No passive, of course. 

17. Some pronouns with the same meaning have two forms, as "I" 
and "me", which mean the same, but the one (I) is used as subject of a 
sentence, that is as the actor in the active voice, or as the one about whom 
some assertion is made, while the other (me) is the object affected or 
that completes the meaning of the verb in the active voice. We distin- 
guish / and words similarly used as nominative case and me and words 
similarly used as objective case. I, thou, he, she, we, they, who are 
nominative forms : me, thee, him, her, us, them, whom are objective forms 
or are in the objective case. James hit John. The boys teased the girl. 
James and boys are in the nominative case ; John and girl are in the ob- 
jective case although there is no distinction in their forms for the dif- 
ferent cases. (Substitute He hit him; They teased her.) So nouns are 
said to have three cases : Singular number, Nominative, boy ; Possessive, 
boy's ; Objective, boy ; Plural number, Nominative, boys ; Possessive, 
boys' ; Objective, boys. Certain adjective forms take the places of pos- 
sessive cases of pronouns (my, thine, your, our, their, her, whose, its). 

18. The verb am not only has no passive, it really has no voice at 
all. It is intransitive, and a pronoun which it couples up in an assertion is 
in the nominative. It is he, I am he, It is she. A few other verbs or 
verb phrases similarly used are said to have nominative nouns although 
pronouns are not used after most of them. Such are become, is chosen 
(also are chosen, am chosen, were chosen, and all the rest), is appointed, 
is' called, is nominated, proves to be (as, it proved to be she). Some 
of these are passive in form. The voters nominated the man as mayor : 
Man and mayor are both in the objective case. The man will be nomi- 
nated as mayor. Man and mayor are both in the nominative case. 

19. Practically all verbs have not only simple forms (No. 15) but 
also "progressive" forms, made by inserting am and its forms before the 
active participle, the form ending in "ing", and in the passive voice by 
inserting am being and its forms before the passive participle. Conjugate 
"see" progressive form, leaving out the future perfect active, and the 
future, perfect, past perfect and future perfect passive. These forms 
are seldom used. 

20. Verbs have also an "emphatic" form in the active present and 
past, conjugate, "I do see, you do see, he does see, we do see, you do 
see, they do see, I did see, etc. The emphatic form is the regular form 
for questions. 

21. Verbs have an "imperative" form; found in such expressions 
as : Look. Do it. Help him. Give me the book. Be good. 



23 

22. Learn the four "infinitives" of some verbs. (Sometimes the 
present active infinitive has "progressive" form.) The construction of 
our infinitives in sentences presents much difficulty. Consider the follow- 
ing: (i) Try to do it. (2) Help me to lift this. (3) He ought to learn 
it. (4) To economize is praiseworthy. (5) Make him say it. (6) Bid 
them enter. (7) Let it drop. In (1) to do is evidently direct object. 
In (2) me is direct object; but to lift is also closely related to help. In 
(3) ought does not exactly take a direct object, but to learn is closely 
related to it. In (4) the infinitive is subject. In (5) and in the rest "to" 
is omitted; they are otherwise similar to (2). 

23. The form of the verb ending in "ing" is the present participle. 
It "partakes" of the properties of a verb and of an adjective; that is, it 
both denotes action or being, like a verb, and limits or attaches to a noun 
like an adjective. There is a present passive participle, as : being fixed, 
being forced. The form of the verb used after have, etc., is a passive 
participle. It has a longer form, with "having been", so we have either, 
"The enemy, beaten in this attack, retired," or "The enemy, having been 
beaten in this attack, retired." 

24. The "ing" form sometimes has the properties of a noun, instead 
of those of an adjective: Seeing is believing; The painting of a building; 
The blowing of bubbles. Such a word is sometimes called a gerund 
(softg). 

25. Pronouns related to other words through prepositions take the 
objective case forms, to me, of them, for whom, etc. So nouns "follow- 
ing" prepositions are in the objective case. 

26. There is such a thing as an "indirect" object of a verb, in the 
objective case, with the idea of to or for included in its meaning; He 
gave me a key. She baked him some cakes. He showed John his 
answer. Fill me this tank. He bought them the seeds. 

27. This is different from the second direct object: She taught 
them correct speech. (Action is performed upon them and not merely to 
them or for them). He named the kitten Fluffy. They chose her leader. 
(In this and many other such cases "to be" seems implied, and the one 
direct object appears to be subject of that infinitive "to be" also). He 
regards them as criminals. (As is not a preposition; it is really a "con- 
junction", the idea being "as he regards criminals." But the "as" is 
sometimes inserted where we need supply nothing. "They elected Davis 
as Governor." As is a superfluous conjunction.) See No. 18 above. 

28. The verb forms with may, can, must, might, would, could, 
should, are usually called "potential" mode — the mode which denotes the 
power to do something and hence possibility of doing it. I may go. You can 
stay. He must try. These three verbs (or auxiliaries, as verb forms which 
go to make up the tenses and modes and passives of other verbs are usually 
called) are present in form but the "ideas" are either present or future. 



24 

We might try. He could send it. I would not do it. Elmer should hurry. 
These verbs are old past forms but the ideas are present or future un- 
less followed by "have" forms, as "I could have done it," or unless the 
past idea is carried by another verb in the sentence, as "He said he might 
cross his yard". The verbal word after may, can, must, might, etc., was 
originally an infinitive but the "to" is never expressed. The relationship 
is much like that after do (see No. 20) or after ought (see No. 22). It 
is easiest to call "may see" present potential; "might see", past potential; 
"may have seen", present perfect potential ; "might have seen", past perfect 
potential ; but we should understand that these are merely convenient 
names. 

29. The verb forms after 'if" are called subjunctive mode. There 
is only one exclusively subjunctive form, "wert" : "If thou wert brave." 
The distinctively subjunctive forms are going out of use: "If I be no 
slave I must be free," is usually "If I am no slave, etc." "If this be true," 
usually "If this is true." "If" clauses are what are called conditional 
sentences. A condition expressed by such a clause may be true or false ; 
besides the writer may want to put it before us with the assumption of its 
truth or of its falsity. The subjunctive is reserved mostly for the contrary 
to fact conditions; If this were a safe course we would pursue it. But 
even this use is confined mostly to past tense forms (though the sense 
may not be past, as it is not in the example just given). So we say "If 
he is a pitcher I do not know one when I see him", and not "If he be a 
pitcher, etc.", although our idea is that he is no pitcher, that is, no success- 
ful one. Learn the present and past subjunctive of "am"; also present and 
past subjunctive passive of "see". These forms are the only ones in com- 
mon use that need be called subjunctive, although some call all forms 
with "if" subjunctive mode, and some try to analyze out every clause to 
see whether it is assumed to be "contrary to fact". (Occasionally there 
is a subjunctive form in third person, singular, present, with the "s" left 
off: as, "If he see me", "Though he slay me", "If she by chance lose it". 
These are not now used in ordinary composition. They are common in 
the Bible.) 

30. Adjectives either modify or limit nouns directly or stand predi- 
cated of them. The latter are : The ship is graceful. Mary is stronger. 
The child grew more wise. Notice "This caused him to be cautious" and 
"This feed made her chickens best." Cautious is predicate of the infinitive 
to be, is predicated of him. (See No. 27 on "him".) Best is predicated 
of chickens. We may supply "to be". (This is a good deal like some 
noun constructions in No. 27.) 

31. Learn the comparison of adjectives and adverbs which are ir- 
regularly compared. 

32. Get clear the distinction between use of adjective and adverb — 
the latter modify adjectives, verbs and other adverbs. We should say, "He 



ran swiftly." "It worked badly." "Ella sang most sweetly." (Not 
sweetest.) But rather, "He appeared sick." "The patient looks bad." 
"The moon shone bright." (These words are predicated of the nouns 
and pronouns, rather than modify the verbs.) 

33. The "relative" pronoun is difficult. It is found only in complex 
sentences — sentences which have a main clause with subject and verb, 
and a subordinate clause with subject and verb. Point out subject and 
verb of main and subordinate in these: (1) Several men were injured 
when an automobile was overturned. (2) I do not see how he can get 
it. (3) They could win if they would try. (4) I have sold what I can. 
(5) Mr. C. used the means that he had. (6) The man who advertises 
his wares sells the most goods. (7) They helped the waif whom they 
found in the old car. "That" in (5) is a relative pronoun. It is the ob- 
ject of had. Its antecedent is "means." "Who" in (6) is subject of ad- 
vertisers and its antecedent is man. "Whom" in (7) is in the objective 
case, object of found; its antecedent is "waif". A relative pronoun is not 
of the same case as its antecedent and is not in the same clause as its 
antecedent. Its case comes from its use in its own clause. "What" in 
(4) is sometimes called a compound relative pronoun, for we can sub- 
stitute for it "that which" (sometimes "those which"). So (4) means 
the same as "I have sold those which I can sell" ; those being object of 
sold, and which being object of can sell. 

34. Learn to distinguish nouns as proper, common, collective and 
abstract. 

35. Be able to give the gender and number of any noun or pronoun 
according to the sense, and the case according to its use in the sentence. 
Always give a reason for thinking a noun or pronoun is in a given case. 

36. Learn to distinguish personal, demonstrative, relative and in- 
terrogative pronouns. Also note that pronouns are sometimes of adjective 
character, as: that man, these boxes, what boy, whichever way, which 
collar. 

2)7- Possessive forms, his, my, whose, their, etc., may be called 
possessive cases of the corresponding pronouns, but are usually called 
possessive adjectives instead. Notice that whose (like who) may be 
relative or interrogative. Relative, The man whose boat I rented cannot 
be found. Interrogative, Whose lantern do you have? (If the antece- 
dent is a thing there is no corresponding one word; "of which" is used.) 

38. When that occurs in a sentence take care to notice whether it 
is a pronoun or just a conjunction, and if a pronoun whether it is a de- 
monstrative or a relative. As a demonstrative it is used (like "this") 
either with a noun construction or as an adjective. 

39. Where, how and when are interrogative adverbs or relative (or 
conjunctive) adverbs. "When can you come?" and "How did it happen?" 
show the former use. "I cannot tell where he is" and "I will come when 



26 

1 can" show the latter. These may be regarded as interrogative adverbs 
in indirect questions however, analogous to "I knew who was coming" 
and "I asked which route the train would take" (who and which being 
interrogative), rather than to "I cannot determine the place in which he 
is" and " I will come at the time at which I can." 

40. It is used in many cases in which it does not represent anything 
in particular and in other cases in which it represents a noun following, 
sort of pointing it out in advance. First use : It is raining. It causes 
much trouble when type is mixed up. (There is used similarly : as "There 
is plenty of work in Australia.") Second use : It is a beautiful morning. 
It is the man I expected. (Whom, understood.) It is certain that he is 
false ("That he is false" is a noun clause, is the real subject, and is antici- 
pated by "it".) It means that the weather will be cooler when the bar- 
ometer rises. ("When the barometer rises" is a noun clause, etc. When 
is a relative adverb in this sentence.) It is needless to analyze the sen- 
tence further, but the fact is that it is an abbreviated expression. Per- 
haps you can supply the rest of it. 

41. The, a, some, same and such words have adjective constructions 
and are called definitive adjective? — adjectives which point out. Ordin- 
ary adjectives which describe or point out by giving particulars are called 
descriptive. (See also No. 30.) 

42. Learn to change participle phrases to clauses and vice versa : 
"The road leading through the meadows" to "The road which leads (or 
led) through the meadows" ; The canyon streiun with bones to which was 
strewn with bones; The children who were laughing to The laughing chil- 
dren; The water after it had been boiled to The water having been boiled ; 
and so with many other turns of expression. 

43. Learn to build up sentences by adding complications and study- 
ing carefully the relationship of the parts added. The new parts will not 
always be added at the end but will be inserted at various points. Also 
practice cutting sentences back to their barest elements and gradually 
restoring the additional words as their relationships grammatically are 
considered. Every phrase or clause must have some attachment in the 
sentence. Consider this sentence : In the seventh grade emphasis should 
be placed on the written narration of actual experiences and on the 
original story. The "on" phrases are adverbial and modify "should be 
placed". The "of" phrase is adjective and modifies narration. The "in" 
phrase modifies "should be placed", or, with a slightly different sense, the 
phrase may be taken to modify emphasis. 

44. It is well to learn some good method of making diagrams of the 
relations of the words and clauses in a sentence — at least of the com- 
moner relationships. 



PHYSIOLOGY 



i. The unit of animal and plant structure is the cell. Be able to 
draw several kinds. Read about how they feed, excrete, reproduce. 

2. Explain what tissues are and name the chief kinds. 

3. The skin ; epithelial tissue ; epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous tis- 
sue : sweat glands and ducts, hair bulb, hair and oil glands. Be able to 
make a sketch showing these. 

4. The mouth : mucous membrane lining (of epithelial tissue) : the 
teeth, names in order, structure, care : salivary glands and saliva, its pur- 
pose, proper mastication. 

5. The alimentary canal : the pharynx, its connections with nose, 
ears, lungs, esophagus : esophagus, its action in swallowing : stomach, its 
position and movements : gastric juice, effect on food of its acid (merely 
neutralizes saliva), its rennin and its pepsin, resulting condition of food: 
general shape of intestines, secretions of liver, pancreas and of the in- 
testinal walls, what they digest (you are not expected to learn the details 
about their ferments) : the villi and absorption from the intestine (there 
is some absorption of food into the system from mouth and stomach.) 

6. The liver (the structure is too complicated for elementary treat- 
ment) : its work in changing sugars to glucose, its storage, its secretion 
of bile, the gall. (It also destroys or modifies waste products.) 

7. The pancreas — its position and function. 

8. Kinds of food. (Read in any physiology.) Balanced meals. 
Reasons for cooking food. Effects of eating too much. Causes of con- 
stipation and of some digestive disorders. 

9. Hygiene of eating and of digestion. Exercise and regularity of 
eating moderate amounts are important. Water at meals. 

10. Circulatory system : be able to make a sketch of the circuit, 
heart to lungs to heart to arteries to capillaries to veins to heart again. 
Length of time to make circuit. Progress of blood from arteries to veins. 
Differences between veins and arteries. Blood pressure. Pulse. Danger 
of overstraining heart. 

11. Material of the blood, plasma, red corpuscles, white corpuscles. 

12. Plasma contains many substances (besides floating the cor- 
puscles) — food for the tissues, waste from them, and many other sub- 
stances (sometimes disease germs) that are transported about. 

13. Work of white corpuscles, 

14. Stopping bleeding of large artery. How blood clots. Stopping 
nose-bleed. Treatment of cuts — danger of blood-poison ; insect stings, 
hydrophobia and tetanus. 

15. Work of red corpuscles. How the oxygen "burns" the food to 
make heat and energy. Resulting product largely carbon dioxide, same 
as in burning fuel in the air. 

27 



28 

16. Purification of blood : general structure of lungs, the exchange 
in the blood capillaries about the lung sacs. 

17. Need of deep breathing, of breathing through nose, of using the 
diaphragm, of abundant fresh air. Checking of tubercular tendency by 
always breathing outdoor air, even if very cold. It is not the carbon 
dioxide of the breathed air but its moisture, contaminated with poisons, 
which injures us. In the open these go right away from us. In an un- 
ventilated room they hover about us and we carry them in again. 

18. Means of school-room ventilation: need of humidified air. 

19. The nervous system : its chief organs, brain, spinal cord, effer- 
ent nerves, afferent nerves, ganglia. It is not worth while for children 
to learn the particularized structure of the brain. They may know it has 
surface with many convolutions, with a thin layer of gray matter outside 
and a mass of white matter within, and all this composed of many inter- 
woven nerve threads, that it communicates directly with nerves of the 
head but that other nerve threads pass into the spinal cord and out from 
the joints of the spinal column to the organs and limbs. They should 
also understand that it is protected by the skull and by delicate mem- 
branes, that the messages brought to it are acted on in various ways, 
that they stir up old brain actions which mean memories, and that the 
result is usually a message sent to some muscle by afferent nerves which 
causes the muscle to move (contract or relax). Some messages, for quick 
action go only to the spinal cord and efferent nerves are excited from 
there. Some messages by which habitual action as walking are regulated 
seem to go to the lower brain centers (the cerebellum) and keep up the 
regulation from there. 

20. Ganglia govern heart action, stomach action, gland action and 
other unconscious processes. They are sorts of knots or masses in the 
nerve tracts. 

21. The eye: learn to sketch and label the parts, cornea, pupil, iris, 
lens, retina, choroid coat, outer coat, aqueous humor, vitreous humor, 
optic nerve. The iris regulates the amount of light admitted, muscles 
change the shape of the lens to adjust it to distances. 

22. Eye defects and their correction. Learn of myopia, hyper- 
metropia and astigmatism. Glasses should be prescribed only by trained 
men who have proper apparatus. Quacks usually correct myopia and 
hypermetropia only, these not accurately, and astigmatism roughly if 
at all. 

2 3- Hygiene of the eye : direction and intensity of light ; cross lights ; 
fine print; holding eye too close; straining to see blackboard; removing 
particles from the eye; sore eyes (teachers should read what they can 
find on trachoma as there is still some in Ohio, then report any suspected 
case at once to the State Department of Health, Columbus). 

24. Color-blindness. This is fully explained only by a knowledge of 



29 

the color-coat of the retina ; this is sufficiently given in but few books; you 
will find it interesting if you can get the information. 

25. The ear : be able to describe the outer ear, tympanum, middle 
ear and cochlea and semi-circular canals of the inner ear; understand 
how the sound waves of the air communicate to the inner ear where 
apparently different "cilia" connected with the auditory nerve vibrate to 
different tones and set up nerve movements which the brain or mind 
translates into sounds. 

26. The semi-circular canals are supposed to give us our sense of 
balance and not to have a part in hearing. They are like carpenters' 
levels set in three different planes. 

27. The larynx. You will find it interesting to learn just how this 
works in speech and singing. 

28. Structure of bones. Mending of bones. An idea of the verte- 
brae, ribs, pelvis and bones of the limbs, hands and feet. The three kinds 
of joints. How bones mend. (When a bone is broken the muscles 
usually draw it out of place even if it is not displaced by the accident. 
Bones should be set by skilled men or they will heal crooked and lapped 
shortened). 

29. Muscles. Structure of muscles. Their attachments (ligaments) 
and how they move the bones. The efferent nerves have endings in the 
muscles which give them the impulse to move. Exercise of muscles and 
its benefits. Little children should not be taxed much with the exercise 
of muscles which make fine adjustments. 

30. The end organs of smell in the nose. Hygiene of the nose. 
Colds affecting the Eustachian (pronounced Ustakian) tube. 

31. The taste buds of the tongue. 

32. Sense of touch. This is a compound of temperature, pain and 
pressure. There are separate nerve endings for heat, cold and pressure 
sensations. Pain is an excess of the nerve irritation. The end nerves of 
touch are all over the body but are much more concentrated in certain 
places, as finger ends and the end of the tongue (for pressure at least). 
A sense of muscular effort is somewhat different and seems located in the 
muscles, giving a sense of the amount of their strain. 

33. The reproductive system. Because of the delicacy of the sub- 
ject this is not taught in elementary schools but every teacher should 
understand it. The best information in brief form is in The Origin of 
Life, R. E. Blount, 124 S. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, III, 15 cents per 
copy. Certain valuable information is found in the following little publi- 
cations of our State Department of Health : How Any Boy Can Develop 
His Health and Strength, Some Things a Girl Should Know About Her 
Health, Instructing Your Child in the Facts of Sex. Any one of these will 
be sent by that Department for two cent stamp. The teacher can at least 
give an idea of the origin of life in the ameba, the frog, fish, bird and 
possibly sofne familiar pets or domestic animals. A fuller explanation 



30 

can possibly be given of how flowers are fertilized and the seed produced. 
All of this may be inadequate but it is better to be silent than to make a 
serious mistake. 

'34. The nails. How they are developed. How they are injured. 

35. Bacteria. Their forms, prevalence, their benefits and injuries. 
How they are destroyed. How to avoid taking them into the body by 
(1) nose (2) mouth. Review work of white corpuscles. How to rid 
milk of them (Pasteurization). Antiseptics. 

36. The course of an illness caused by a germ disease. The fever, 
the struggle with the white corpuscles, the development of anti-toxins 
(killers of the particular germs) in the plasma of the blood. The theory 
of vaccination. 

37. Particular diseases and their control; tuberculosis, malaria, yel- 
low fever. 

38. The throat (particularly tonsils) as a source of disease. Any 
throat soreness should be a signal for immediate gargling with an anti- 
septic liquid. Very mild warm salt water is effective (half a spoonful or 
less to a glass of water) ; if too strong it breaks down tissues; if the spot 
is not reached by gargling, the salt water (be sure it is mild) may be 
drawn up the nostrils past the sore spot. There are other preparations 
which are more effective for particular conditions. If the soreness is con- 
siderable or if there is not immediate betterment or if there is perceptible 
fever a physician should be called. 

39. The theory of counter-irritants — mustard plasters, coal oil, fat 
salt meat, capsicum, cold compresses. 

40. The effect of perspiration. Why we feel more hot in air laden 
with moisture (as before a rain). Why certain kinds of clothing make 
us cooler or keep us warmer. 

41. Teachers should study the markings and other symptoms of the 
following diseases: measles, German measles, chicken-pox, scarlet fever. 
Also symptoms of (diphtheria. 

42. Treatment of a drowned person. Teachers should have this 
clearly in mind at all times and review it with the school several times a 
year. Also give warnings about swimming after meals and other matters 
of safety first. 

43. Alcohol. What becomes of it after it enters the body. Some 
of its harmful effects, lie sure to teach no exaggerations. The facts are 
enough. 

44. Tobacco. Some of the harm it does especially if used to excess. 
Be sure to teach no exaggerations. Careful experiments show that even 
a little tobacco impairs efficiency. I could refer you to books and pam- 
phlets which give accounts of these experiments but probably you would 
not find time to read them. Dwell on the economic aspects of the ques- 
tion. It is certain that tobacco does no good ; the money could give the 
individual other worthy advantages. 



GEOGRAPHY 



A good modern text should be used. 



World as Home of Man 

i. What factors render a given region habitable? Uninhabitable? 
Both polar regions and dense tropical forests, deserts and swamps are 
largely uninhabitable. 

2. Living conditions (for people, plants, animals) in polar regions. 
How would we fare there ? How do eskimos like temperate climate and 
civilization ? 

3. Living conditions (for people, plants, animals) on deserts. The 
oasis. Travel on deserts. Desert regions in U. S. 

4. Life in Brazilian forests. From the above it may be evident 
that we are going to study the world as a home for men. We began 
with places where life is simple. It is very complex in most regions. 

A Little Physical Geography 

5. Rivers, (a) How their general direction is determined, (b) 
Cutting of land by river — (1) vertical (2) at their sides (bends) (c) 
Causes and results of floods (d) Contrast of banks such as of Ohio and 
such as of lower Mississippi (e) Cause of the two contrasting situations 
where rivers meet oceans — estuaries and deltas (f) Navigability factors 
(g) The lock and dam (h) Jetties of Mississippi delta. 

6. Falls and rapids : Causes, progress. 

7. Frozen water flows — glaciers. Effects of glaciers of ages ago 
in northern and western Ohio and northward — scooping out lakes, 
smoothing land, producing some hills, rounding others. How this was 
done. The glacier (now) as source of iceberg. 

Some General Features of U. S. 

8. Get an outline map of U. S. and a blue pencil and trace or 
retrace or mark the important features and places as I indicate them by 
the word "mark" in this outline. Mark the great lakes S, M, H, E, O. 
Mark the following rivers : Hudson, Delaware, James, Mississippi, Rio 
Grande, Ohio, Missouri, Niagara, St. Lawrence, Columbia, Colorado. 
Mark the following bays, etc : Delaware. Chesapeake, Long Island 
Sound, New York Harbor, San Francisco Bay. 

New England 

9. New England states as a place for industry ; surface, climate, 
presence and fall of streams. Natural resources : hills and some moun- 

3 1 



32 

tains but — no mineral, no coal ; farm land but mostly thin soil ; prox- 
imity to coast, also to markets; harbors but absence of coastal plains; 
rivers, some of them with rapids. So — lumbering, farming, manufac- 
turing, shipping and fishing. 

10. Chief manufactures of New England. In each note presence 
of these factors or some of them: (i) available raw material, (2) near- 
ness to market, (3) power. (4) labor, (5) advantage of early start. 

ir. Study of forests, forest products, their effect in making the 
region prominent in certain industries. 

12. The Gloucester fishing industry. The fishing is largely done at 
the Grand Banks near Newfoundland. 

13. Quarrying in New England. What and where? Markets? 

14. Study situation of New England (physically and, as far as you 
can, commercially) with reference to England, New York, Canada. 

New York 

15. Get setting in respect to bodies of water — Hudson, Cham- 
plain, St. Lawrence (mark), Ontario, Niagara (mark), Erie. 

16. The Erie canal (mark). Note that it follows the line most 
nearly level from river to lake. (Use a map which shows general ele- 
vations.) This canal is still largely used — for what? Would it pay 
to improve the route from sea to lake so that ships could traverse it? 

17. New York's great foreign shipping. Tell of the scenes there. 
The piers are largely at Jersey City and Brooklyn. 

18. New York as a manufacturing city. It has the most manu- 
factories of any city in U. S. Name some manufactures. Show reason 
for same on plan given in 10. 

19. New York as an office city. Most great concerns have a New 
York office, — many have the main office there — why? 

20. Why should you like to live in New York? What would you 
not like about living there? 

2i. Interior U. S. transportation connections of New York City: 
(1) Erie Canal, (2) 5 rails to Buffalo — 2 of these altogether through 
N. Y., others partly Penna. (3) 3 rail lines to Philadelphia (mark) and 
thence west. (4) Southern and western rail connections via Washington 
(mark). (5) Coastwise steamers to Boston and Fall River, Norfolk 
(mark), Florida, New Orleans and (via Panama Canal) to San Fran- 
cisco, Los Angeles (mark), Portland, Ore. (6) Rail lines to Connecti- 
cut and Massachusetts, to St. Lawrence river region (via Albany — 
mark), and to northern New England (via Connecticut and via Albany). 

22. Transportation within greater N. Y. ■ — ■ look up subways, ele- 
vated roads, tunnels under rivers, harbor craft and ferries ; bridges to 
Long Island. N 



33 

23. Buffalo (mark) : reason for greatness (work out in detail at 
least these) — products from west, distribution to west, transshipment, 
manufacture — -apply here points in 10 — do not overlook Niagara 
power — be able to tell how it is utilized, interior agriculture, fisheries. 

24. Canadian connections via Buffalo (Niagara Falls). 

25. Lake ship lines — look up types of craft, passenger and freight, 
sail and steam; western cities reached — (mark them all) Cleveland, 
Toledo, Detroit, Chicago, Duluth. 

26. New York State as an agricultural state : dairy products — 
milk trains into N. Y. city ( how many pounds of butter and how manv 
gallons of milk do N. Y. city's 6,000,000 people probably use a day?), 
potatoes, hay, grapes, apples. 

2.7. Look at a map which has lowlands in colors ; beginning with 
Long Island and then southward from New York the lowland is found, 
broadening most of the time, joining the gulf coastal plain and including 
all of Florida. 

28. Note character of shore line of southern Long Island and all 
the Coast of New Jersey ; find out whether it is different in N. C. or 
eastern Florida. 

29. . Find meaning of fall line and locate it roughly. (Run a dotted 
line to mark it on your map, starting at Washington and ending at 
F'orida line). How did it cause location of towns? 

30. The products of New Jersey coast plain ; sweet potatoes, ber- 
ries, melons, peaches, early vegetables. ("What conditions of soil favor 
these products?) 

31. Cranberry production — place and conditions requisite. 

^2. Agricultural products of the coastal plain of Maryland, Vir- 
ginia and the Carolinas down to Charleston (mark) : berries, vegetables, 
peanuts (how grown?), tobacco, cotton (in N. C), peaches. 

33. Marketing advantages of these regions : for N. J. every access 

to the great cities — and . Shipment by steamer or rail from 

Charleston, Wilmington, N. C. (mark), Norfolk, Baltimore (mark), 
Philadelphia, Jersey City (mark) or New York, to another one of this 
list of cities or to New England or to any points in the central west or 
south. 

34. The coastal plain of S. C. and Ga. In addition to conditions 
for rice and cotton growing (what are those conditions?) we find con- 
siderable yellow pine growing and, about Charleston, masses of phos- 
phate rock. What is derived from the pine forests besides lumber? 
What is derived from the phosphate rock? What are the chief ship- 
ments from Savannah harbor? 



34 



The Piedmont Belt 

35. The country back of the coastal plain as far as the mountains 
proper is called the Piedmont Belt. Mark the first range of mountains 
with a dotted line, running from southern N. Y. to central Ala. 

36. Piedmont Belt products: In N. J., garden truck; Va.. apples 
and tobacco; N. C, tobacco, corn; S. C. and Ga., cotton; Ga., peaches. 

37. Piedmont Belt cities and industries: (a) N. J., — (1) Pater- 
son, silk; (2) Jersey City, shipping, chemicals, oil refineries; in some 
respects practically part of N. Y. City; (3) Newark, thread, copper, 
jewelry; (4) Trenton (mark), pottery: (b) Pa. — Philadelphia, ship- 
ping, carpets, locomotives, woolens, leather (further in No. 38) : (c) 
Md. — Baltimore, fish and oysters, shipping, tobacco manufacture, 
clothing, canneries (further in No. 39): (d) Va. — Richmond (mark), 
tobacco manufacture: (e) Ga. -- Atlanta (mark), the office city of the 
south, wholesale distributing center, cotton mills, iron manufacture. 

38. Philadelphia: ( 1 ) It is the great coal shipping point for the 
vast mines of Pennsylvania. (2) other export trade — imports. (3) 
Baldwin locomotive works. (4) U. S. Mint. (5) what historic build- 
ing? (6) Hog Island one of the great ship building yards developed 
during the recent war. (7) other reasons for Philadelphia's large size. 

39. Baltimore: (1) note the peculiar location. (2) how oysters 
are raised. (3) iron manufactures and ship-building. (4) U. S. naval 
academy at Annapolis (which is also state capital) a few miles away. 
(5) other manufactures (see 37). (6) export point, especially for grain. 

Appalachian Mountains 

40. The Adirondack mountains (mark) did not originate with the 
Appalachians. 

41. The mountains of New England, although cut by Lake Cham- 
plain and the Hudson, belong to the mountains which begin in New 
York (Catskills) (mark) and extend to Alabama; these are "old, worn- 
down" mountains, but they are high enough to make a difficult passage 
for railroads through them. Only 6 railroads do so. Only one of these 
is south of Virginia, — the one from Chattanooga (mark) to Atlanta. 

42. These mountains are traversed between ridges in many places 
by rivers, and in some cases considerable valleys, with the usual farm 
crops, are found. Also these rivers finally cut through the ridges to 
pass to the Atlantic or Mississippi. (Mark Susquehanna, Potomac, 
James, Tennessee.) 

43. Coal deposits in Appalachians — Pa., Md., Va., W. Va., Ky., 
Tenn. 

44. Kinds of coal — methods of mining. 



35 

45- Coal distribution, (i) from Pa. mines, (2) from Va. mines. 
Note that coal must reach industries of New York City and other coast 
cities and New England. A little is exported also. 

46. Iron in southern mountains, accounts for industries of Bir- 
mingham (mark) and Bessemer. Otherwise few cities. 

47. Timber — Kinds. Our chief hardwood forests, much good 
hardwood timber which is not easy of access still standing. 

Appalachian Plateau and Foothills 

48. This includes a good deal of southern New York, all of Pa. 
and W. Va. west of the mountains, eastern Ohio and Ky. and small 
strips of Tenn. and Ala. 

49. Coal. Pa. hard coal ; Pa. soft coal ; W. Va. coal ; Pocahontas 
coal (on Va. border) ; Hocking coal (located in Hocking County, Ohio) ; 
Pomeroy coal (located Pomeroy, Ohio) ; Eastern Ohio coal (located 
Belmont Co., Ohio.) Usually these names are general designations for 
coals not found solely in the particular counties, etc. 

50. Forests. Hard-wood forests continue from the mountains to 
the plateaus and foothills. Where the timber is easily transported by 
river or rail it has been mostly cut off. Ohio has little left. 

51. Clay — Eastern Ohio next to N. J. in pottery and other clay 
products. 

52. Glass — suitable sand in Pittsburgh region promoted industry. 
Most American glass is made in Pa. and W. Va. 

53. Glass and other manufacturing industries largely aided by 
natural gas supply of these regions. W. Va. gas is piped to Cleveland 
and Cincinnati. 

54. Oil accompanies gas deposits. From large petroleum produc- 
ing regions it goes to refineries by underground pipes. The large re- 
fineries are at Jersey City (see No. 37) and about Chicago, although 
many small ones have recently been built in oil regions. The under- 
ground pipes carry Ohio oil to Jersey City. What are the products of a 
petroleum refinery? 

55. Pittsburgh (mark) — a great iron and steel city. Originally 
ore from N. Y. and Pa. were used. They are not profitable now. Ore 
is brought by lake steamers to ports near Pittsburgh and then by rail. 
It comes from the borders of Lake Superior (mark) in Mich, and Wis. 
Coal is made into coke before use in iron furnaces. Great coke ovens 
are in Va., W. Va., Pa. They are being replaced by Solvay coke plants 
which save the liquids and gases driven from coal to form coke. The 
three essentials of iron are good iron ore, coke, limestone. Why is Pitts- 
burgh a great iron city? (1) Raw material, (2) early start, (3) labor 
skilled in this line, (4) accessible markets — including all west to Missis- 
sippi river and even beyond — also the east, (5) transportation — the 
Ohio river was important in early development. 



36 

56. Many other iron and steel cities. Some leading ones — ( 1 ) 
Ohio — Youngstown, Steubenville, and Ironton (mark all three) (there 
are a number of others, about half of them west of the hilly region, 
however). (2) W. Va. — Wheeling (mark). 

Great Central Plain 

(a) EAST OF MISSISSIPPI 

57. This includes most of our own state, and Wis., Mich., 111., Ky., 
and central Tenn., except northern Wis. and the northwest corner of 
Mich. There are large areas of flat land, but southern Ind. and 111. are 
hilly and have extensive coal mines. Much of these states allow easy 
railroad building. 

58. Natural resources: (1) timber (north), (2) coal (see 57), 
(3) fish (the Lakes), (4) iron (about Lake Superior), (5) copper 
(peninsula into Lake Superior), (6) oil (many points in Ohio and 
eastern Ind.). 

59. Farm products: all temperate zone products, especially (1) 
corn — 111. has great corn areas, (2) wheat, (3) potatoes (especially Wis. 
and Mich.), (4) sugar beets (Mich.), (5) grapes (southern lake 
regions), (6) peaches and apples (Mich, and Ohio), (7) tobacco (south- 
ern Wis. and southern Ohio), (S) oats, (9) hay. 

60. Animals : ( 1 ) fur-bearing animals, especially in northern for- 
ests, (2) hogs (why is this the chief hog region?), (3) sheep, (4) cattle, 
especially for fattening, (5) dairy cows, (6) horses and mules (Ky. and 
Tenn.). 

61. Manufactures as outcome of natural resources: show relation 
in each case and seek reason for locality of industry. 

A. Milling of wheat — Chicago. Milwaukee, Ohio towns and cities. 

B. Manufacture of cereals — Chicago-, Michigan, Ohio. 

C. Furniture — Michigan (Grand Rapids — mark — as center), 
Southeastern Indiana. 

D. Lumber — northern Michigan, Milwaukee; doors, sash, etc. 

E. Pork-packing — Chicago, Cincinnati. 

F. Canning of vegetables — Wis., Mich., Ohio. 

G. Iron and steel and their products — Milwaukee, Gary (near 
Chicago). 

H. Cement. 

I. Beet sugar — Michigan. 

J. Lake steamers. 

K. Petroleum products (see No. 54). 

L. Tobacco — southern Ohio, Louisville (mark). 

62. Manufactures as outcome of location, markets, early start and 
other causes not directly natural resources ; seek reason : 



37 

A. Agricultural machinery. 

B. Tools ; automatic machines. 

C. Watches. 

D. Electric apparatus ; light bulbs. 

E. Automobiles ; tractors. 

F. Rubber products (especially Akron, Ohio — mark). 

G. Matches. 

H. Cars (especially Pullman, 111., near Chicago). 

I. Paints. 

J. Paper. 

K. Shoes. 

L. Stoves. 

M. Clothing. 

N. Books. 

63. Cleveland — factors in its development. 

64. Detroit — factors in its development. 

65. Chicago — factors in its development; do not overlook advan- 
tages to these cities of being distributing centers; compare No. 25; think 
of Chicago especially in its relationships to west and northwest. 

66. Cincinnati and Louisville are gateways to the south. What are 
some of the kinds of traffic that flow through them? 

67. Ohio river traffic : The traffic above Cincinnati has come to 
be mostly coal and logs going down stream. Other freight is handled 
more easily by rail. Below Cincinnati there is only a limited traffic. The 
river has almost gone the way of the canals, which are all disused in this 
region. Millions are being spent on river improvement but are probably 
wasted. 

68. Railroads of the region. Easy building and heavy traffic have 
caused the closest network of rail and electric lines in the world. At 
that, the building is easy only in places, there being many heavy grades 
and streams to contend with and so many road crossings and intersec- 
tions. But there are less difficulties than in mountains — and the fre- 
quency of traffic furnishes a motive. Better roads and many automobiles 
and trucks have ruined a number of electric and steam lines recently. 
Note that nearly all traffic from the east to west must cross Ohio and 
Indiana. 

69. The packing industry. Chicago stockyards and packers. By- 
products. Transportation of meats to seaboard and to Europe. 

70. Methods of iron and copper mining about Lake Superior. 

Great Central Plain 

(b) WEST OF MISSISSIPPI 

71. This includes all of Iowa, Minnesota except the iron region, 
Mo. except the southern plateau, eastern Kans., much of Oklahoma, and 



3« 

the most of eastern parts of S. D. and Nebr. These regions are rolling — 
less flat than much of the plain region east of the Miss, but more free 
from hilly regions. Their general characteristics are the same. 

72. Iowa resembles Ohio outside its large cities. There are some 
coal mines, the raising of corn and hogs, of wheat and cattle, especially 
dairy cattle, of oats and hay. 

73. Iowa manufactures — What would you expect? See how far 
the fact checks with your expectations. Look up the water power de- 
velopment at Keokuk (mark). 

74. Iowa has the most autos per capita of any state. What reason 
was there to expect it? (Iowa has no unproductive areas or poor mining 
regions like Ohio.) 

75. Omaha and Kansas City (mark both) resemble Chicago in some 
respects. Indicate in what respects and why. 

76. Kansas and Oklahoma oil. This is in eastern Kansas and east 
central Oklahoma, discovered in last few years, very large supplies, 
carried from most dense fields to Chicago and New Orleans by pipe lines. 
Smaller supplies here as elsewhere are hauled to the refineries in tank 
cars. Natural gas also in some of these fields. There are coal mines 
in the eastern border of the oil fields, next the plateau. 

77. Missouri plateau region. This extends into Arkansas and 
Oklahoma. It is generally spoken of as "The Ozarks" or "The Ozark 
Mountains," although several distinct groups of mountains form part of 
the region. What two valuable minerals here ? The Missouri plateau is 
also a fruit region. 

78. Northern Minn. — eastern, highland (including part of the iron 
region — ■ see No. 70) ; central, plain with many glacial lakes ; west, valley 
of Red river of North, very flat and fertile, producing wheat on large 
scale. Part of Minn, and Wis. are forested — largely pine, spruce, fir and 
other evergreens. 

79. Minneapolis (mark) is the greatest milling city (reason?). 
Four of the five lines to the northwest and Washington-Oregon coast 
go from Minneapolis or St. Paul (the Twin Cities). Originally water- 
power used here ; also outlet for timber region. 

80. St. Louis. Find reasons for its greatness. The Missouri river 
is now little used. There is still considerable Miss, river traffic. What 
cities we have named are linked by Miss, river? What ones formerly 
by Missouri river? (Do not neglect to consider St. Louis' connections 
with south as well as with west). St. Louis is a manufacturing as well as 
distributing and collecting center. 

81. All of the remainder of this region has the same staple crops as 
Ohio. 



39 



The Gulf Plain 

82. Beginning with Ga., including all of Fla.. this extends to central 
Texas, and may be considered as including the Mississippi flood plain 
up to and including the mouth of the Missouri. Ages ago the Gulf 
extended that far north. 

83. Character of the lower Mississippi (from mouth of Missouri, 
but especially from south of Memphis, to New Orleans) — the river is 
often higher than the country back from it, and is held by levees, partly 
natural, partly artificial, which are grass-covered earth retaining walls. 
It is often very crooked, and in many cases after getting bow-shaped cut 
across the shortest way, and left a bow-shaped lagoon behind. 

84. Delta of the Mississippi. What causes deltas? The condition 
mentioned in 83 is also natural in a delta where the mouths often shift. 
How is the channel from New Orleans to the sea made permanent? 

85. Southern Florida. Largely swamp land, called Everglades. 
Some are being reclaimed by drainage. Out on the end of a chain of 
coral islands is the city Key West (mark), now reached by a railroad 
bridging from island to island. Southern Florida is popular as a winter 
resort. What does Florida peninsula produce? 

86. Much of the coastal plain is heavily wooded with "southern 
yellow pine" and with cypress. See No. 34. 

87. Louisiana and Texas have recently become large producers of 
oil. Some gas and salt are found in the same regions. 

88. Cane sugar. This is produced almost entirely in the lower 
Mississippi valley. Much heat and moisture are required for its growth. 
A great deal of the sugar is refined in northern states — Illinois and 
Philadelphia and Brooklyn, N. Y. But New Orleans refines much, and 
Brooklyn and Philadelphia use largely raw sugar from the West Indies. 

89. Other southern staples: (a) Cotton, (b) Rice, (c) Tobacco, 
(d) Peanuts, (e) Early vegetables. 

90. Study cotton: (r) climate required, (2) cultivation, (3) har- 
vesting, (4) cleaning and baling. (5) distribution for manufacture, (6) 
products of cotton, (7) by-products, (8) enemies of the cotton plant. 
More cotton is now manufactured in the south, although much still goes 
to New England mills and much abroad. 

91. Find where rice is grown, and soil and climate required for it. 

The Great Plains 

92. This means the rising ground extending from a line running ir- 
regularly from central Texas to the Red River of the North to the western 
mountains and plateaus. It is distinguished from the central and Gulf 
plains to its east both by elevation and rainfall. But it is not sharply dis- 
tinguished from these. None of it was ever wooded as the rainfall was 
too small. However, much of the prairie-plains (Great Central Plain) 



40 

was found without trees by the white men although it had plenty of rain- 
fall to grow them. This region includes much of Montana, Wyoming 
and Colorado, the Dakotas and the remainder of Texas, Oklahoma, 
Kansas and Nebraska. 

93. The rainfall is enough to. support grass — hence large grazing 
lands. 

94. Dry farming and farming by irrigation are practiced. Alfalfa 
has proved a great boon because of its deep rooting. Where there is 
irrigation or a river valley with more than average moisture almost any 
temperate zone farm crop can be raised. Much wheat is grown. 

95. Ranches prevail in much of the region — sheep more in the 
north and cattle in the south. Density of population is very slight. 

96. Eastern Colorado irrigated lands produce large orchards, melon 
patches and beet fields. So fertile is most western land when watered. 

97. The Black Hills (mark) are surrounded by the Great Plains. 
They belong with the Rockies. Erosion has cut into their deposits of 
gold, iron and other ores. 

98. East and west of them are "bad lands", lands with soft shale 
that does not break up into soil, yet washes easily into irregular rough 
shapes so they are agriculturally worthless and are "bad" to travel over. 

99. Coal — Large lignite (What is it?) deposit in western N. D. ; 
plenty of fair bituminous west of Black Hills, some near Denver. So 
coal enough to supply the region needs. 

100. Denver "(mark). This city is perhaps better explained with 
reference to the mountains to its west. But it is the focus of most rail- 
roads from the east. Here ores from the mountains are smelted -to pro- 
duce gold, silver, copper and other metals. Two rail lines penetrate the 
mountains from Denver to the west, another passes south and joins a line 
to Los Angeles through New Mexico. Cattle and fruit from the mountain 
valleys pass through Denver to the east. Its altitude is high and air clear, 
making it a health resort 

101. Cheyenne (mark), capital of Wyoming, was in the path of 
the main old stage line to California. The Union Pacific Railroad, built 
with' government aid, followed the same path from Omaha to Cheyenne, 
and then on to Ogden (mark), thus missing Denver. It is still a great 
line. 

The Remainder of the United States Proper 

102. This perhaps should be divided into three parts — the Rockies, 
the Great Basin and Plateau region, and the coastal mountains and plain. 
The large size may be appreciated from the fact that it is as far by airline 
from Denver to Salt Lake City (mark) as from Pittsburgh to Indian- 
apolis, and much farther by rail, and about the same distance from Los 
Angeles to San Francisco. 



4i 

103. Note that the high mountains which cross Colorado do not 
continue far into N. M. Peaks of these mountains are 10,000 to 15,000 
feet high. Some plateau stretches between ranges are 10,000 feet, others 
much lower. Several of these intervening plateaus are called parks and 
produce fruit and cattle. The mountains have gold, silver, lead, zinc and 
iron mines, and some coal. 

104. The mountainous region (Rockies) broadens still more to the 
northwest, including most of Wyoming. There continue to be wide 
plateaus between ranges. 

105. Yellowstone Park. Location and chief attractions. 

106. The second division is the Great Basin and plateau region — 
the very extensive region between high Rocky Mts. and high coastal 
mountains. This is a region of considerable elevation — mostly above 
4000 feet and except in a few places is very rugged, traversed by low 
mountains. 

107. The Great Basin region proper of Nevada has many lakes 
scattered between ranges. The population is very sparse — most of it 
about the mines. There is too little rainfall for grazing except in a few 
spots. 

108. West of Great Salt Lake (mark) is a definite desert. In 
ancient times it was covered by the Lake which is still receding. 

109. Another desert is found in Southern California, west of the 
Colorado river (mark). Deserts are usually accounted for by being on 
the side of mountains away from winds. The winds lose their moisture 
in rising to cross the mountains. 

no. There are borax deposits in desert California. Have you heard 
of Death Valley? These deposits would wash away if it were not a dry 
region. 

in. Arizona has a mountain region crossing it from southeast to 
northwest. This connects with the mountains of Mexico. It contains 
great copper deposits, making Arizona rank first in copper. 

112. Another copper region is in the mountains of Montana. It is 
second largest. 

113. The plateaus of Oregon are better watered and sustain some 
pasturage. Those of Washington are supplied with enough rainfall to 
raise wheat and this has become a great wheat and apple region. 

114. To the west of the basin and plateau region along most of the 
coast there are two parallel masses of high mountains with a valley near 
sea level between. In the northern part this connects with Puget Sound 
(mark), and in the southern part with San Francisco Bay (mark). The 
Columbia river (mark) intersects the northern valley. Its lower section 
is drained by the Willamette (mark). The Sacramento (mark) and San 
Joaquin (mark) rivers traverse the southern valley. 



42 

115- These valleys produce in the north all temperate zone crdpS 
and in the south temperate zone crops plus oranges, lemons, raisin grapes, 
prune plums and the famous California peaches and other fruits. Many 
of these fruits are dried in the sun. Not much rain falls but plenty of 
water can be led down from the mountains. 

1 1 6. On the west mountain slopes and narrow lowland bordering 
the sea like crops are raised in abundance. 

117. How do we account for the Pacific coast climate which is 
never cold, even in Washington? It is due to winds tempered by the 
Pacific waters which are cold only farther north. The currents in that 
ocean also pass toward our shores from sources to the south. 

118. California has a rainy and dry season except in the few miles 
farthest north and farthest south. It always rains in January and never 
in June. Why? (See Nos. 128 to 131.) 

119. Washington has a rainfall equalled only by the other extreme 
corner of our country — southern Florida. Consequently it has great 
forests — of fir — of which the products are distributed even to Ohio. 

120. The Pacific ports : (a) San Francisco. This is the great port for 
China, Japan and the Philippines. Vessels commonly stop at Hawaii. What 
exchanges in this trade across the ocean? Remember that railroads from 
the east reach San Francisco. San Francisco has also trade with the east 
coast via Panama Canal. The city has manufactures including shipbuild- 
ing and sugar refining, (b) Los Angeles (the harbor is really San 
Pedro). The carriage from here is largely fruit, (c) Puget Sound 
ports, Tacoma and Seattle, and Portland (mark all three). There are 
termini of railroads from St. Paul, and of a branch of the Union Pacific 
from Cheyenne. Vessels carry our manufactures to China, Japan, 
Australia and South America. 

121. Salmon. Learn the habits of salmon and learn of the salmon 
fisheries on the Columbia river. 

122. Find pictures of the following natural scenery — canon of 
Columbia, canon of Colorado, Yosemite National Park, Big Trees, Mt. 
Shasta. Find where each is. 

123. Oil of California. To put a climax on the west coast's won- 
derful natural advantages, oil was discovered in 1898 in quantity on the 
southwest coast. Immense areas are dotted with productive wells. It 
is the chief fuel (Not much is needed to warm buildings, however). 

124. Salt Lake City. Besides being a successful commercial city 
this city is the center of the Mormon or Latter Day Saint faith. It con- 
tains their Temple and Tabernacle. It was founded by people of that 
faith emigrating from Illinois. They have done great things for a region 
which did not seem to possess even possibilities when they took it in 
hand. 



43 



The Great Winds of the World 

125. In connection with the west coast we have felt need of under- 
standing the winds. Perhaps it has occurred to us that these may have 
to do with the rainfall all over the United States, and with the tempera- 
ture also, not to speak of storms. It is a subject involving at least the 
sciences of physics and physical geography and perhaps some other 
sciences that no one understands as well as we should like, for weather 
differs most places in different years and cannot be forecast with cer- 
tainty. 

126. The first fact we need to know is that air carries moisture as 
invisible vapor. Air is seldom entirely dry. The second fact is that the 
warmer it is the more vapor it can carry. Hot air can carry very much 
more than cold air. If hot air is chilled it usually becomes visible — that 
is some of its vapor condenses to tiny particles of water as mist or fog, or 
to larger drops as on a pitcher of ice water which sweats. There is a 
certain fixed amount that air at each given temperature can carry. If it 
has its full amount (for the temperature it has), it is said to be saturated 
— it cannot take up any more — and if the saturated air is chilled it has 
to drop some moisture. The third fact is that unsaturated air always 
tends to take up more moisture and become saturated, and hence to take 
up some moisture from anything it touches — to dry that thing or evap- 
orate the moisture from it. When air is changed from cooler to warmer 
it is less nearly saturated and becomes drying in its effect. When changed 
from warmer to cooler it is more nearly if not quite saturated and be- 
comes less drying in its effect or begins to drop its moisture, changing it 
from the invisible form in which it is carried to a mist or if it is dropped 
fast enough to drops of water. The fourth fact is that the upper atmos- 
phere is colder, as it is warmed mostly from the earth rather than the 
sun rays passing through it. So usually when air rises it is chilled, when 
it descends it is warmed. Finally, warm air is lighter than cold air (in 
spite of the warm air holding more moisture). Then colder air tends to 
fall and warmer air to rise. When air is highly heated it tends to rise 
rapidly and cold air to rush in from all about to take its place. This rising 
and rushing in process originates most air movements — that is, winds. 

127. The second set of facts concerns the earth's rotation. The 
earth is spinning from west to east. It is about 25,000 miles around at 
the equator and not much less here. The rotation takes 24 hours. So 
we are flying around at nearly 1000 miles per hour toward the east. The 
atmosphere goes with us (usually). If it did not we would feel it all 
the time as a wind, a thousand-mile an hour wind. Second fact: the dis- 
tance around the earth gets less as the earth tapers off" toward the poles. 
At the Arctic circle it is about 12,000 miles around. At the pole itself 
it is nothing. There is no east and west there — the only direction at the 
north pole is south. Third fact : the atmosphere goes around about as 



M 

fast as the earth under it. The farther couth we go from any point 
north of the equator the faster the rotation; the farther north we go 
the slower the rotation. If a piece of atmosphere, going around at the 
rate of the earth at 70 degrees north latitude in transferred a degree 
south, to 69, it is over land going faster than this piece of atmosphere 
was just before going, and it does not at once get the new speed. The 
land is then flying faster to the east than this newly transferred atmos- 
phere. So this atmosphere lags behind the earth and appears to us as 
a wind blowing toward the west (because of its origin farther north, 
usually toward the south-west). In the same way atmosphere coming 
from the south (if north of equator) is going faster than the earth to 
which it is transferred and rushes on ahead of it — blows toward the east. 

128. The earth is likely to be hottest just under the sun. The sun's 
rays are vertical at the equator about March 21 and September 20. They 
are vertical at the northern tropic, Cancer, June 20, and at the southern, 
Capricorn, December 20. So the hottest belt shifts north and south. Hot 
air is lighter. It rises. So heated air keeps rising from the ground. 
Cooler air rushes in along the surface to replace it. A wind blows toward 
the heat belt. One blows from north and one from south. These are 
the trade winds. But they do not blow straight north and south. From 
No. 127 determine the direction. These winds tend to be drying. Why? 
But where they strike highlands, or after passing over oceans, they may 
bring rain. Why? They are blowing in their farther north position in 
summer. It is then that California has its dry season. But in winter they 
have shifted to the south with the sun and are not blowing along 
California. 

129. The winds of the temperate zones beyond the trade winds are 
not so definitely explained. They blow toward the east as a rule. That 
indicates their origin nearer the equator, and their passage into latitude 
of less rapid earth rotation. These winds blowing toward California 
in winter from warmer areas over the Pacific ocean bear rain. 

130. At the heat equator, where the hot air rises, and the currents 
to replace it from north and south meet, we have a belt of calms. At 
about 30 degrees from the heat equator, from which point winds blow 
north and south and upper air descends to replace them, are other narrow 
belts of calms. 

131. Such westerly winds most frequently are the winds blowing 
here. They bear rain more often when they are from the Gulf of Mexico 
than when from the Rockies. Our winds usually can not be definitely 
traced west of the Rockies. They are usually whirling storms also, the 
whole whirl passing toward the east, and the winds of the whirl blowing 
in all directions of the compass but passing in the whirl in the opposite 
direction from the hands of a clock. (See a weather map and v/ote the 
arrows on it.) 

132. Account for the heavy rains of Washington and Florida. 



45 



Europe 

(a) ENGLAND AND FRANCE 

133. Observe the four sub-divisions of the British Isles. Note that 
half or more of the Isles are upland or hills. There is one lowland belt 
across Scotland and one across Ireland. But most of England proper is 
lowland. 

134. Compare latitude of England and New Jersey. It is remark- 
able that England is nevertheless of about the same temperature. Find 
a reason. 

135. Note the irregular coast-line. Value? Note distance across to 
France. 

136. Note the river on which London is situated. This river has an 
estuary. Ocean steamships reach London. 

137. In attempting to account for London's size — it is exceeded 
only by New York — consider its relation to the countries of the mainland 
and to the lowlands of England. "All roads lead to London" was said 
before there were railroads, and the railroads do so now. The early start 
of England in extensive and varied manufacturing and the enterprise of 
England in exploring and settling colonies were factors in making 
London, its capital and trading center, grow. 

138. With mostly the climate of New York and good summer rain- 
fall, what farm crops are to be expected? Much upland is used for 
grazing sheep and some for cattle. In northern Ireland flax is raised for 
the linen industry. 

139. Why would one expect the British Isles to have great fisheries? 
The herring, cod and haddock do not seem to diminish after centuries 
of extensive fishing. 

140. The chief basis of the large population and wealth of the 
British Isles is manufacturing, and that is due to the minerals of the 
country more than its trade. Iron and coal in Wales, Scotland and Eng- 
land make possible the manufactures of London, Glasgow, Birmingham, 
Liverpool, Manchester. Sheffield, Leeds. Glasgow. Birmingham and 
Sheffield chiefly manufacture iron and iron products. But England's iron 
ores are becoming exhausted and ores are imported. 

141. Of the cities named in No. 140, note which are portt. Glas- 
gow does not appear to be, but the river Clyde has been deepened for 
ships. It is one of the greatest ship building ports. 

142. Before steam was used England was leading the world in 
cloth manufacturing with water-power and hand looms. Dampness helps 
cotton manufacture, and the air of Manchester meets that requirement. 

'Early introduction of automatic machinery and steam kept the advantage. 
The country supplied the wool for woolen manufacture but now much 
comes from Australia. Leeds manufactures most woolens. Cotton came 
from the United States — much of it now from Egypt and India. 



4 6 

143- Liverpool and London, like New York, lead in commerce and 
at the same time have many and varied factories. Leading steamship 
liners from America reach Liverpool and passengers go on to London 
by rail. 

144. Note the capital of Scotland. It is a banking and office city. 

145. Irish linens are well known. Belfast is a city of linen manu- 
facture. The moisture is favorable for this. The flax is grown in Ire- 
land. Belfast also is a city of ship building like Glasgow. Steel and coal 
are brought from England. Northern Ireland is largely under Scotch 
influence — the people are Scotch-Irish and largely Protestant. 

146. Dublin is the Irish capital and quarrels over Ireland's con- 
nection with England have centered about it. Central and southern Ire- 
land are mostly Catholic. Cork is a coast city in the south. 

147. From Cardiff, Wales, much coal goes to countries which do 
not have a supply. The extreme southwest corner of England contains 
tin and used to supply the world but now does not furnish enough for 
England's tin-plate mills. 

148. France is another country resembling Ohio in farm crops, 
although it is generally warmer. Where it is semi-tropical and why? 
Yet note that southern France is a good deal farther north than Ohio. 
There is not the hot weather and moisture over a considerable area nec- 
essary for cotton, rice or sugar cane. 

149. France probably would not grow these crops anyway, as her 
farming is intensive rather than on plantation scale. The same is true 
of England and of Europe generally. 

150. Vineyards flourish in France — in the river valleys and aboui 
the Mediterranean. Wine made from these grapes is the national drink. 
It is exported also (but no longer to the United States). 

151. The silk worm is raised in southern France. Read about its 
cultivation and the silk industry. But much silk is imported from China 
and Japan and Italy for the extensive silk manufacture. What American 
city manufactures silk ? 

152. France's coal and iron are mostly near the Belgian and Ger- 
man borders. The iron is considerable and the coal would be ample but 
the Germans ruined the mines during the war and they are not yet re- 
paired. Part of the iron and coal are in Lorraine which was regained 
from Germany. 

153. Note location of Paris, and river Seine. Note Havre, the port. 
What is the chief port on the west ? On the Mediterranean ? 

154. Note how southeastern France includes part of the Alps. 
Some water power is being developed from the mountain streams. Three 
rail lines reach Italy from France — one by the coast, one directly over 
and through the mountains (Mt. Cenis tunnel) to Turin, one via Switzer- 
land (has also long tunnel). 



47 

155- An extensive and actively used canal system connects French 
rivers and cities. 

(b) CENTRAL EUROPE 

156. We are including here Belgium and Holland, which might be 
considered of Northern Europe or of the North Sea instead. The other 
countries under this head are Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, 
Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Jugoslavia. The four last named, except a 
little territory, are Austria-Hungary on any but recent maps. As a result 
of the war that country was divided up. 

157. Poland, which had existed many years before, was restored 
from German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian territory. The capital, 
Warsaw, (on what river?) is their great market city, and also has manu- 
factures of flour and meal, sugar and textiles. There is some coal in the 
southwest (this tract has voted to join Germany, however), and in the 
south, next to the Carpathian mountains, the crest of which separates 
Czechoslovakia from Poland. There is iron in these places also. 

158. Poland has temperate zone agriculture. The northern part has 
lakes like those in northern Minnesota and in New York. These lakes 
were scooped out by glaciers as were those in U. S. 

159. The port used by Poland, Danzig, is "internationalized", that 
is, by treaty all countries may use it, and a joint commission, under no 
one country, governs it. 

160. Look up the surface of Holland (The Netherlands), the man- 
ner in which it is made available for farming, the crops raised. They 
are planning to increase their land by protecting and draining the Zuider 
Zee. 

161. Dairy products find market in England's big cities. Dutch 
sailors bring products from all over the world to Rotterdam, from which 
they are distributed to other parts of the world. They colonized some 
of the East Indies ( Sumatra, Java, part of Borneo and many smaller 
islands), and Holland still owns them. Ships reach them via Isthmus of 
Suez. Look up the islands and the route. Find out what those islands 
chiefly produce. 

162. Amsterdam is made a port by canal to the North Sea. It is 
a very large city. The enterprise of the Dutch has developed extensive 
manufactures of textiles, sugar, meat and dairy products, lumber, leather 
and even iron products, in spite of there being no coal or iron in the 
country. 

163. Belgium is only about a fourth as large as Ohio but has a large 
population. The people are somewhat crowded. The northwest is plain, 
the southeast is upland and hills. French is the official language but some 
speak Dutch and some German. 

164. The hills contain coal. Sheep are raised there also. The 
country lies between Germany and France and was invaded and suffered 
much from the Germans. 



48 

165. There is intensive farming' in the lowlands. The moisture is 
high because winds from the sea strike the upland while saturated. Bel- 
gian horses are raised and exported. 

166. Excellent sand led to glass manufacture. The raising of flax 
and the moisture explains linen mills and lace manufacture. Other tex- 
tiles and iron products are made. 

167. The advantages of being the capital, of being the distributing 
center because all rail lines and roads center in it, of manufactures and 
of rich surrounding territory make Brussels the largest city, although it is 
not a sea port like Antwerp. 

168. Germany is a large (4^ times as large as Ohio) and varied 
country. It lost in the war Alsace and Lorraine to France, and the south- 
eastern part, separated somewhat by highlands, became a part of Czecho- 
slovakia. All northern Germany is lowland ; a belt of moderate width 
across the central part connects the Belgian highland with that adjacent 
to Czechoslovakia; while the southern part where streams form and join 
the Rhine and Danube is a plain of little elevation ; the southernmost 
border reaches the Alps. 

169. Germany possesses most natural advantages — ■ agricultural 
productiveness, mineral wealth, good internal transportation, good outside 
communication. 

170. What important crops can France grow which Germany can- 
not? Make the same comparison of the crops of Germany and U. S. 

171. What metals are found in Germany's highlands? In addition 
to metals there are coal, clay and potash. During the Avar Germany 
needed desperately three things — copper, rubber, cotton. The U. S. 
seemed to need but one German product — potash (for fertilizers). 
Germany also needed more food. Why ? 

172. Note Germany's rivers. They are used much more than ours. 
They are connected with canals which are in use, as in France. Railroads 
are easily built. 

173. Germany's manufactures: why do they include (1) iron prod- 
ucts, (2) textiles, (3) dishes, (4) paper, (5) sugar, (6) ships? 

174. Locate the Oder, Elbe, Weser and Rhine rivers. Note which 
flows into the Baltic. It freezes in winter. The others remain open. 
Note the ports — Stettin, Hamburg, Bremen. The last two are the great 
ports for trade with the world at large. Note how the Kiel canal joins 
North and Baltic seas. Note how Berlin is situated — on a canal between 
Oder and Elbe. 

175. By peace treaty boats of any country may go (1) through Kiel 
canal, (2) on the Rhine, (3) on the Elbe up into Czechoslovakia, (4) on 
the Oder, (5) on the Danube. (Note how the Danube extends from 
southern Germany to the Black Sea. What 6 countries does it touch ?) 

176. The Rhine country was held from 19.19 on by the troops of the 
"Allies", England, France, Belgium and the U. S., because war agree- 



49 

merits had not been carried out by Germany. The coal and iron fields 
about Essen were included. The U. S. troops were withdrawn in 192 1. 

177. Czechoslovakia is all upland or mountains. The western part 
is Bohemia. The upland is productive. The Carpathian mountains and 
the rim of the plateau have mineral and forest wealth. Prague is the 
capital and manufacturing and trade center. 

178. Hungary is a great plain, called the "bread basket" of Europe. 
Corn as well as wheat is largely produced. Budapest is a combination 
of two cities, Buda on the west side and Pest on the east bank of the 
Danube. 

179. Vienna is Austria's great city. Austria's resources were largely 
taken from her at the end of the war. The Danube valley is productive. 
The mountains contain minerals and are forested. But communication 
is poor. Vienna's 2,000,000 population, nearly equal that of Paris or 
Chicago, is diminishing. Why? 

180. Jugoslavia's boundaries on the coast give difficulty. The ter- 
ritory was taken from Austria-Hungary and joined with Serbia to make 
the new nation. But Italians had settled the coast and desired to join 
Italy. The separateness of Albania has been a question also. 

181. The northern part of the country is of the Hungarian plain. 
The remainder is mountainous but with numerous mountain valleys. Be- 
ing farther south, olives, lemons, oranges and mulberries grow as in Italy. 
Herding is the chief mountain occupation, as in Switzerland. There is 
lumbering also. The port, Fiume, was awarded to Italy, but Jugoslavia 
may ship through it. 

182. By what characteristic is Switzerland well known? Why is it 
a summer resort ? Switzerland managed to keep entirely out of the war. 

(c) NORTH EUROPE 

183. Most of Russia is a plain. It is so flat that the rivers easily 
shift their courses. The northern half is cold and seldom thaws deep, 
making cold marshes. Farther south is a forest belt and still farther 
south good land for general agriculture. Farther south and southeast 
lack of rainfall forbids agriculture but there is enough rain for herding 
except in the far southeast. 

184. Denmark and eastern Sweden are in the plain. In Denmark 
agriculture is highly developed, especially dairying. 

185. What is peculiar about Norway's coast? There is shipbuilding 
on Norway's coast. Fishing is pursued by many along the coasts of Nor- 
way and Sweden. There" is some timber in the mountains. Iron ore is 
mined and exported. Note how little of Norway is plain. Yet there is 
sorrfe agriculture, especially hay raising, in the mountains. The country 
is-ft$t cold like Russia. Why? Hammerfest is an interesting port be- 
ca«'»e "Within the Arctic circle. 



So 

1 86. How does the length of a summer day compare in Ohio and 
North Dakota ? In Ohio and Hammerf est ? How long would the longest 
day be at Hammerfest ? Travellers visit Hammerf est to see the northern 
lights. What are they ? 

187. Besides her plains Russia has the upland region called the 
Ural mountains and on the southern border has real mountains — the 
Caucasus. The Ural mountains contain the world's greatest supply of the 
valuable mineral, platinum. A great oil region borders the Caucasus. 

188. Russia has a tremendous territory and population. It controls 
all northern Asia also, known as Siberia. Russia has for several years been 
in a confused condition from internal strife. Many of the population are 
believed to have perished of famine and disease. The former capital, St. 
Petersburg, later called Petrograd, is believed largely drained of its 2,- 
000,000 inhabitants. The capital is moved to the ancient capital, Moscow. 
Finland and several other large areas on the border have become in- 
dependent. 

(d) SOUTH EUROPE 

189. Italy adjoins the Swiss and Austrian highlands. South of there 
is the Po valley. The rest is hills and mountains, except some coast areas. 

190. What is peculiar about Venice? What other cities in the Po 
valley? It is cold in winter in northern Italy. Where is Rome? It has 
been a famous city for over 2000 years. It has fine old buildings; among 
them in the Vatican, the Pope's residence. 

191. What crops in this southern peninsula? The mountains are 
not high enough to make it very cold. Their effect is rather to cause 
sufficient rainfall. How? The Mediterranean is a very warm ocean. 
Why ? What arm of the sea is east of Italy ? 

192. We read often of earthquakes and volcanic action in Italy. 
Etna in Sicily and Vesuvius near Naples are volcanoes. 

193. Italy lacks coal. Some waterpower is used. Sicily produces 
sulphur. There is marble in the Apennines (the mountains of the 
Italian peninsula). Much silk is produced. Florence and Milan have 
this industry. Florence contains many fine paintings; some of the world's 
most famous artists lived there. 

194. Macaroni is an important manufacture and is imported to U. 
S. though we now largely produce our own. Much wine is made in Italy. 

195. Southern Spain and Portugal have products similar to southern 
Haly. The mountains of Spain are found next to France and in the 
south. They make plenty of rainfall in these parts. Portugal also has 
ample rain. But central Spain has not, is arid and does not have the ad- 
vantage of the sea breezes, so has rather cold winters. It is plateau land 
with deep canyons for river channels. It is consequently not productive. 

196. Spain has iron in both mountain regions. Some is manufac- 
tured but more is exported to England. Spain is an unprogressive 



5i 

country. Textiles and tobacco are manufactured. We import olives. 
olive oil, sardines, raw silk and cork. 

197. Portugal produces most cork, which is the bark of the cork 
oak. This is exported from Lisbon, capital and trade city. Ships are 
built here and Portuguese sailors are numerous all over the world. 

198. Rumania largely resembles Hungary though it has a large 
highland region as well as plains. As reorganized it is 2^ times as large 
as Hungary, and the latter is a little larger than Ohio. There is much 
wheat for export. In the highland there are grazing and timber. There 
is also oil. 

199. Bulgaria is similar to Rumania with a large proportion of 
highland. There is some coal. Turkey has been nearly pushed out of 
Europe by the advancing boundaries of Eulgaria and Greece, but still 
retains its famous capital city, Constantinople, and small surrounding 
areas. The straits from Black to Mediterranean sea are open to all 
nations since 1919. 

200. Greece has the climate of southern Italy, but scant summer 
rainfall, so irrigation is largely employed. Athens, the capital, has famous 
ancient monuments. 

Asia 

201. Note that Asia extends from polar regions to tropical seas. 
A large part of it is mountainous or desert and has few inhabitants. In 
fertile lowlands the people are closely crowded. There are today more 
people in Asia than in all the rest of the world. 

202. The northern part of Siberia or Russia in Asia resembles 
Russia in Europe. South of that tundra region is the world's greatest 
forest area, yet it is almost untouched after these thousands of years. 
Why? It is the source of the Siberian furs which supply much of the 
world. 

203. A railroad runs from European Russia clear across Siberia 
to the Pacific port, Vladivostok. A branch runs to Port Arthur. Vladi- 
vostok is ice bound several months of the year. 

204. Much of the region near the Caspian is too dry for anything 
but herding, the herds being driven from place to place as the grasses 
are exhausted. Similar life is found in several dry parts of Asia. There 
is good temperate zone agriculture in much of southern Siberia. But the 
southernmost border much of the way is rugged mountains. 

205. Much of interior Asia, including Siberia, has very cold 
winters, even colder than interior Canada, and hot summers. There are 
no sea breezes. The air is dry; moisture would tend to blanket the earth, 
and the sun's heat to be expended in evaporating the moisture, if any. 
The dryness of Asia's interior plateaus is caused by there being high 
ranges between them and the sea. How? 



52 

206. Most of Asia's mountains are not worn-down ones like the 
Appalachians but very high and rugged mountains, like the Rockies. The 
highest are the Himalayas, north of India, and the highest of the ranges 
form the southern boundary of Thibet, "the roof of the world". Only a 
few American or European travellers have penetrated these mountain 
regions. The high valleys are cultivated. The yak takes the place of 
horse and cow. 

207. Asia's great plains, besides those of Siberia are: (1) most of 
eastern China (especially northeastern), (2) a broad belt across the 
northern part of the peninsula of India, (3) the southeast India coast, 
(4) the country about the southeast corner of Asia (Gulf of Siam), (5) 
the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. 

208. All of these except the last are very productive. Babylon was 
in the last named valley. But the land has been neglected; the trees were 
all felled; irrigation is necessary to restore it, as rainfall is very light. 

209. The "monsoon" winds bring heavy summer rainfall to most 
of Asia which faces the Indian ocean. These blow to the land in sum- 
mer when the land is very hot (remember former explanation of winds), 
and in the opposite direction in winter when the sea is much the warmer. 
Similar winds bring rain to eastern China, Korea (now usually called 
Chosen — -pronounced cho-seen') and Japan. 

210. This moist, hot lowland produces rice, cotton, sugar cane. In 
the Siam region also rubber, in Japan also indigo, in Formosa also the 
camphor tree. Higher regions, also warm, produce tea, coffee, mulberry 
(for silk), hemp. Coffee is produced only on Arabian coasts and in the 
extreme southeast, however. 

211. Silk and tea culture are suited to the surplus hand-labor of the 
crowded countries which (excepting part of Japan) are almost without 
power-driven manufactures. Farms of small size are cultivated very 
intensely, especially in China and Japan. Hogs are raised by the Chinese 
farmers. 

212. In India and in the interior of Burma (it belongs to England, 
along with India) and in some of the Malay peninsula many wild animals 
are still found in the "jungles". 

213. The western and southwestern parts of Asia and some of the 
interior (including western and part of northern China) are the dry, 
sparsely settled plateaus where herding is the occupation. In these regions 
there are horses, cattle, sheep, goats, camels. 

214. The date palm requires dry air, but moisture for the roots. 
This condition is met on Arabian and Persian coasts. 

215. Two great rivers (Yangtze and Hwang) cross China and are 
the east and west Chinese highways. A railroad and the sea and the 
grand canal between the two rivers give north and south communication. 

216. The destructive Chinese floods are in the lower Hwang. Its 
course is ill-defined and when flooded it breaks across new paths/ The 



53 

removal of the timber has made part of the Yangtze valley barren that 
was once productive. 

217. China is believed to have enormous coal and iron deposits which 
have not been touched except a little to the south where French have 
begun development. The world's chief tin mines are in the end of the 
Malay peninsula and in a nearby island. 

218. Japan is well supplied with copper, coal and iron and is now 
manufacturing on a modern factory basis iron goods, ships, cloth, flour, 
pottery, paper and lumber. 

219. The great Pacific ports of Asia are (1) in Japan, Yokohama; 
(2) in China, Tientsin, Shanghai. Hong-Kong (belongs to England) and 
Canton. The ports of India are Calcutta and Bombay. Ceylon, the 
island south of India, furnishes us tea, rice, cacao (from which cocoa and 
chocolate are made), cocoanuts and most of the graphite for lead pencils. 

220. Asia's great capitals : Peking of China, its port is Tientsin, 
population about 1,000,000; Tokio of Japan, its port is Yokohama, popu- 
lation about 2,000,000; Delhi of India, on the upper Ganges, population 
about 200,000, English capital moved there in 191 1 from Calcutta (popu- 
lation about 1,000,000) where it had been for 60 years. (Delhi was al- 
ways regarded as native capital.) 

Australia and New Zealand 

221. ■ Australia's misfortune is its dryness. The eastern border is 
mountainous, and there is also a highland at the south and east corner. 
These intercept the southern trade winds. In what direction do they 
blow ? As they come from a cooler region they tend to be drying winds, 
anyway. 

222. The great plain of Australia, just west of the mountains, can 
much of it be irrigated from the rivers that rise in the mountains. There 
are also several well watered valleys about the coast. They raise fruits, 
wheat, and dairy cattle. Northern Australia is hottest but the climate 
mostly mild. When is Australia's wheat harvested? Apples? 

223. Australia leads the world in excellent sheep. It raises many 
cattle also. It is a great wool and dairy products exporter. 

224. Gold first boomed Australia. Some is in eastern highland. 
Most in the desert toward the west coast. A railroad was recently 
finished from east to west passing through the gold country. The eastern 
highland has iron and coal. 

225. Australia has about 5,000,000, mostly whites and largely Eng- 
lish. Sydney and Melbourne have each about 750,000 inhabitants. They 
have enormous shipping. What exports? (Do not overlook meat 
products.) 

226. New Zealand is largely mountainous. Herding is the leading 
occupation. The west coast has fiords like Norway. There are great 
falls, geysers and scenic mountains. 



54 



Africa 

227. This country, except in north and south, is equatorial. The 
moisture of the hot air rising from the heat equator to the colder upper 
regions condenses into clouds and falls as rain practically every after- 
noon. But the heat equator shifts north and south with the sun. Regions 
crossed by the sun's vertical rays on the path northward and again on the 
path southward have two rainy seasons. Those near the tropics have 
but one. (The heat equator does not get as far toward the poles as the 
tropics except in a few lowlands, but only to about 15 to 20 degrees, de- 
pending chiefly on altitudes.) 

228. There are mountains in northwest Africa. Winds mostly blow 
toward the equator from about 40 degrees (trade winds) and have a 
direction westward also. (Why?) Therefore we have the Sahara desert 
and a continent generally dry, except a little along the Mediterranean, 
down to near the equator. The southwest is also dry even near the 
Pacific. 

229. The region of equatorial rains has great jungles. There are 
many large animals in them. North and south of them are good grass 
lands. 

230. Ivory and copal, from which varnish is made, come from the 
hot forests. Rubber is cultivated in this climate. Palm oil, cacao and 
some spices are other products. Great numbers of native negroes live in 
these regions. 

231. Northern and extreme southern Africa are largely inhabited 
by whites. The southern region is plateau and of temperate climate. 
It was discovered to have gold and diamonds as well as good land for 
agriculture and stock raising. 

232. The fertility of the Nile valley makes it a great source of 
cotton and rice. It is controlled by England. Cairo is the chief city. 
The British cut the Suez canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red 
seas. That is one of the world's greatest trade routes. Much of a rail- 
road from Cairo to the southern cape of Africa has been built. 

233. The Congo river is navigable for [00 miles from the sea from 
where rapids interfere with navigation for the next 230 miles. A rail- 
road has been built to handle the traffic for that distance from where the 
river can be used for the next 1600 miles. In these rapids, in the great 
fall of the Zambesi, in the falls of the Nile and elsewhere is tremendous 
unused water-power. 

234. Ostriches are native, along with giraffes, antelopes, buffaloes 
(not the American kind), zebras and rhinoceroses in the deep grasses 
outside the belt of tropical forests. Ostriches are raised in the south. 
Practically all the giraffes are in Abyssinia. 

235. Much of xA.byssinia is rugged highland. Part is, like most of 
Africa, plateau of moderate height. Very little of Africa is lowland. 



55 

The eastern Sahara has an elevation of about 3000 feet. Equatorial 
Africa is nearly all elevated as proved by the falls and rapids in rivers 
passing to the sea from it. 

236. What is an oasis? Describe desert travel. 

237. Government of Africa: Only Abyssinia and two small states 
are entirely independent. One of these is Liberia. Most of the con- 
tinent is ruled or influenced by Great Britain. The Congo country is 
directed by Belgium. Morocco, Algeria and Tunis on the northwest, the 
Sahara region and the island Madagascar are French. Italy controls 
Libya which is west of Egypt, (formerly known as Tripoli), and a small 
land which extends to the point of the continent farthest east. Portugal 
lias a southwest section and a southeast section. The remainder of south 
Africa is all British. 

South America 

238. South America has a high mountain region on the west 
(Andes) with a narrow coastal plain, and with a valley or plateau be- 
tween the ridges of these mountains ; it has a broad central plain from 
north to south, and in tbe northeast there are mountains like those in 
New England. 

239. Great rivers are in the large plains (except in the south). 
These are fed by streams from the uplands and mountains. The flat 
country was once an inland sea which was gradually filled by silt. 

240. Note the country's relation to equator and tropics. Also the 
trade winds. These blow from east to west and toward the equator. 
They start at 35 to 40 degrees. What part of South America is out of 
their path ? Beyond the trade wind belt winds blow from the west. The 
winds, mountains and heat determine the rain. Taking 35 degrees as 
calm belt (it shifts with the seasons), what parts of S. A. should be found 
desert? What parts rainy? 

241. The Amazon valley is like equatorial Africa. It has lower 
altitude than most of African tropical forest. It has the commercial 
advantage of a river navigable far inland — and even to ocean ships for 
1000 miles inland. 

242. Trading posts are established along the Amazon. To these 
the rubber, cinchona bark, and Brazil nuts are brought. The Amazon 

and its tributaries afford outlets even for eastern Peru and Bolivia. 

243. Learn to locate all South American countries. 

244. The Orinoco is a river with a delta and the valley is often 
flooded. It is cooler up there and there are extensive grasses for herd- 
ing. The other great river is the Parana (the estuary called the La 
Plata). Its valley is largely grass land. The southern part of the con- 
tinental valley has no river. It is flattest of all. It is a great grazing 
land, good for agriculture when cultivated. 



56 

245- The eastern part of Brazil is upland and hence cooler. South- 
ern Brazil is also cooler, and has temperate zone agriculture. The up- 
land has the world's greatest coffee plantations. The eastern coastal low- 
lands raise sugar and cotton. 

246. Rio de Janeiro is one of the world's great cities. The coffee 
industry is large. The cattle from the interior are brought here. Some 
timber also. Santos is the greatest coffee port. 

247. Amazon river cities ship the rubber. 

248. Several great falls of Brazil may some day supply electric 
power. Rio de Janeiro already derives power from Sao Paulo falls. 
There is no good coal and little oil known in South America. So water- 
power gives the best chance of manufactures. 

249. Argentina is the other really great South American country. 
Much of the grass "pampa" in the south-central part has been removed 
for wheat. About the Parana grazing has precedence. Millions of tons 
of frozen meat are shipped from Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. The 
world's greatest hide market is in this country. 

250. Argentina lias ample railroads in the central region. Besides 
one rail line goes clear into Bolivia and another crosses the Andes to 
Chili. Brazil rail lines do not penetrate far. Argentina affords easy 
railroad building and Brazil very difficult. 

251. Southern South America is cold (not extreme cold). The 
southeast is also dry. Sheep are raised. Chili owns most of the southern- 
most end. 

252. Chili's greatest resource is the tremendous nitrate deposit in 
the north. The country is desert. Nitrate could be found only in a desert 
for its dissolves easily. 

253. Chili, Argentina and most of South America are Spanish. 
Brazil is Portuguese. Northern South America has many Indians and 
people with Indian blood. Man}- negroes have been brought into Brazil 
also, especially in the Amazon region. 

254. Uruguay and Paraguay are excellent agriculture and grazing 
countries. The latter is too dry but irrigation is employed to grow farm 
crops. Oranges grow wild wherever there is moisture in this country. 

255. Bolivia has no coast. But there is a railroad to the sea through 
Chili and one through Peru. The Madeira leads to the Amazon. There 
is a railroad round the falls (as in the Congo). Southwest Bolivia is a 
very high plateau surrounded by mountains. The southeast is tropical 
lowland. On the plateau is Lake Titicaca on which boats ply. The 
plateau is treeless. It contains much tin and some silver. 

256. Peru resembles Bolivia in topography but has a long coast 
and a narrow coastal plain. Railroads have a hard climb from coast to 
plateau. It has copper instead of tin. The llama and alpaca are found 
in the Andes. The former is the beast of burden in the Andean high 
altitudes. The latter has fine wool. 



57 

257- Ecuador and Columbia are similar but with more coastal 
plain. Columbia produces most of the world's platinum (since Russia's 
collapse). Ecuador is not known to have much mineral. "Panama" 
hats are woven here from torquilla straw which grows in the lowlands. 

258. Ecuador illustrates the effect of altitude on climate. By as- 
cending to one mile above sea level there is the same change in tempera- 
ture and plants as by going 1500 miles north or south of the equator. 
By ascending 2 miles the same as in going 2500 north or south. 

259. The lowlands of Venezuela and Guiana have products similar 
to those of the coast plain of Brazil. There is herding on the uplands 
and coffee is grown on the Venezuelan mountain slopes. 

260. Trinidad island is our great source of asphalt. It forms there 
a great lake. 

261. Note that eastern South America is practically as near Europe 
by sea as it to the the United States ; that western South America is al- 
most due south from our eastern coast via Panama Canal. 

Canada and Alaska 

262. Canada does not have a Mississippi valley. On the contrary a 
large highland independent of those of the United States lies north of 
the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes and Lake Winnipeg, extending 
in the west to near the mouth of the Mackenzie. This is supposed to be 
the oldest highland in America and from it the glaciers flowed which 
smoothed and modified the central northern states of the United States. 
The upland is full of small glacial lakes. It is now free from ice sheets, 
though the north is extremely cold. About the southern end of Hudson 
Bay there is a large lowland area, forested. Trees do not grow on the 
upland except near the St. Lawrence. 

263. Four eastern provinces are in the Appalachian highland. They 
are so near the sea that they do not get extremely cold. These are New- 
foundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. 
The people about the coast are engaged largely in fishing. Many fish on 
the Grand Banks, shallows out in the Atlantic. 

264. Nova Scotia has a good coal supply. There is also good farm- 
ing about the Bay of Fundy. Halifax is a station for vessels about to 
cross the Atlantic by the northern route. 

265. Spruce for paper making, fruit and dairy products are the 
other important productions of these provinces. The Canadian govern- 
ment railways have helped to develop them, as well as to develop much of 
the rest of Canada. 

266. The provinces of Quebec and Ontario have good agricultural 
tracts, the former south of the St. Lawrence, and the latter in the V east 
of Lake Huron. They are devoted to market gardening and dairying. 



58 

267. Ocean vessels reach Quebec and Montreal, the latter about 
1000 miles from the sea. Montreal is a great shipping point. The St. 
Lawrence freezes in winter, and goods are forwarded in sealed cars to 
Boston. (Sealed as not imported into U. S.) Montreal has lumber in- 
dustries and grain mills. 

268. Toronto shares with Buffalo the power derived from Niagara 
Falls. In the upland north of Lake Huron are the world's largest nickel 
mines. 

269. Ottawa is the Canadian capital. Though Canada "belongs to" 
England, it is nearly as self-governing as United States. 

270. Manitoba has about Lake Winnipeg a flat area like that of the 
Red River of the North in which there are great wheat fields. Great 

mantities of wheat and oats are raised in the Great Plains area west 
ot that region. Rain is scant but comes in spring and is supplemented 
with the spring thaw so it is only a much narrower belt than in United 
States which is good for grazing only. But the grain area is limited to- 
ward the north by the cold, though farmers are learning to utilize country 
with less and less summer. 

271. Why are summer days here vastly longer than ours? 

2"/2. In the north the Mackenzie valley and the more eastern of 
the two Pacific mountain ranges are not known to be of much value. 
In the plateau between the mountains and in the coast range are gold and 
forests — great forests in the seaward slope where there is heavy rain. 
There are salmon in the rivers. 

273. British Columbia is the western province and Victoria is the 
terminus of the railroads. Coal on Vancouver island supplies western 
Canada. Exports are salmon, lumber, grain and coal. 

274. Central and northern Canada is great trapping country. Win- 
nipeg was formerly the great fur station and now it is Edmonton in 
Alberta. Winnipeg has a railroad into United States and all transcon- 
tinental lines in Canada center there. 

275. Alaska has a coast line in front of a good deal of Canada. 
The gold region of the upper Yukon in Canada is reached by railroad 
from the Alaskan coast. When this gold land was opened up it was sup- 
posed to belong to United States. There is coal in the region also. This 
coast region is an extension of the west coast range of United States. 
It runs along the south of Alaska and terminates in the Aleutian islands. 
There is a great glacier north of Juneau, the Alaskan capital. South of 
that there are great fiords. 

276. Our government is constructing railroads from the southern 
coast of the main tract, through the mountains, to the plateau, through 
which the Yukon flows. Some great coal fields are to be reached in the 
mountains. 

277. Supplies for interior Alaska are carried in summer by boats 
which ply the Yukon, in winter dog sleds are used. In the Behring Strait 



59 

district and north reindeer are used. Gold and tin are found near 
Behring Strait. 

278. The parts of Alaska near the coast which are inhabited most 
do not have very severe winters because of sea breezes. In summer they 
are quite warm and gardens flourish. 

Central America, Mexico and the West Indies 

279. Mexico has a large section of gulf coastal plain in the north- 
east. As the country is hot and rainfall heavy we find here dense tropical 
vegetation, and where cultivated rice, bananas, rubber. Ebony and 
mahogany are found in the forests. 

280. As the land rises from the coastal plain to the eastern moun- 
tains it becomes cooler. Great coffee plantations occur and there are 
temperate zone products. 

281. Westward of the eastern range of mountains is a great cen- 
tral plateau, mostly very dry. Part has sinks like Nevada. Against the 
western range the winds give up moisture again. This permits agricul- 
ture by irrigation in the western part of the plateau. 

282. In the south of the wider part of Mexico the plateau is ended 
by a range containing volcanoes. Down against this range is situated 
Mexico City. 

283. West of the western mountains is another still dryer region — 
The Sonora desert. The peninsula of California is a southward exten- 
sion of the coast range. It is too dry for good agriculture. 

284. Most of the Mexican plateau can support herds and many 
horses, cattle, sheep and goats are raised. The minerals are in the ranges. 
Copper, silver and gold are largely developed. Near the eastern coast 
oil is found. 

285. Mexico is fairly well supplied with railroads. Yet it is largely 
undeveloped. There is little manufacturing. Oil and water power could 
probably supply the lack of coal. There are few progressive people in 
the country. Many are uneducated laborers of Indian or mixed blood 
who are called peons. 

286. Cuba and the other West Indies resemble Mexico in a general 
way but have no large inland plateau region. They have enjoyed peace 
the last few years while Mexico has had civil war, so they are making 
more progress. They have an advantage over Mexico in ocean trans- 
portation as Mexico has few harbors and those not good. 

287. Sugar and tobacco are the big crops of the West Indies but 
there are exported; also many bananas, pineapples and live-stock, and 
much coffee, sisal hemp, tropical fruits and early vegetables. 

288. Note the governments of the various islands. United States 
acquired in 191 7 St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix, together called the 
Virgin Islands. They are small but productive. 



6o 

289. Central America is a great producer of tropical fruits. A 
steamer line from New York does most of the trading and owns some of 
the railroads. The hills grow coffee and tobacco. The people are mostly 
content with the barest living. The heat limits the hard work. 

290. Read something of the difficulties overcome in building the 
Panama Canal. Only a strip of ten miles on each side of the Canal is 
owned by the United States. Note that the Atlantic end is farther west. 

291. As the land rises from the coastal plain to the eastern moun- 
tains it becomes cooler. Great coffee plantations occur and there are 
temperate zone products. 

Philippine and Hawaiian Islands and the East Indies 

292. Most of these islands instead of being low and flat as we might 
imagine are mountainous. Only Borneo and Sumatra have any consider- 
able lowland areas. 

293. Java is the most densely inhabited. It belongs to the Dutch. 
It is very productive with products of all climates at different altitudes. 
It is known to us for its coffee and spices. 

294. Borneo still has wild tribes but is being developed by the Eng- 
lish who own a portion. The southern part, with the rest of the East 
Indies except the eastern half of New Guinea, belongs to Holland. 
Australia administers eastern New Guinea. New Guinea also has wild 
tribes. 

295. These islands produce such tropical products as rice, sugar 
cane, vanilla bean, rubber, cinchona and spices. 

296. The Philippines produce similar products, valuable woods and 
hemp. Manila is the chief port. The islands are progressing with the 
aid of the United States in government, education and productivity. The 
natives live mostly on rice, fish and fruits. 

297. Hawaii is on the trade routes betweeen Asia and Europe. The 
islands are tropical or semi-tropical. Pineapples, lemons and oranges 
are largely produced. The extensive forests of the northeast sides of 
the islands will sometime be utilized. Honolulu is the chief port. 

298. Adding the small islands Guam (near the Philippines) and 
Tutuila of the Samoan islands to the list, enumerate all possessions of the 
United States. 



HISTORY 

1. Why European people were seeking new sea routes. 

2. Their wrong ideas about the seas to the west ; ( I ) those held by 
most people, (2) those held by persons like Columbus who had unusual 
insight into geography. 

3. Columbus' first voyage: (1) how financed, (2) extent of fleet, 
(3) route, (4) difficulties of journeying, (5) land discovered, (6) his own 
impressions. 

4. Lands reached in his later voyages. 

5. General objects of explorers. What objects of later settlers did 
they lack? 

6. Spanish occupation of Mexico. 

7. Spanish conquest of Peru. 

8. Greater success in the original object of Columbus and other 
early explorers of our coasts by what other route? 

9. Give two cases of failures of interior explorers to attain their 
objects. 

iio. Lands reached by earliest English explorers. 

11. Lands explored by French (a) in 1534, etc., (b) in 1608 to 
1634, (c) in 1672 to 1682. 

12. Virginia settlement; Plymouth settlement. 

13. England's methods of assigning and providing for the govern- 
ment of colonies. 

14. Difficulties of early colonists. 

15. Difference between prevailing modes of life in southern and in 
New England colonies. 

16. Settlement of Dutch in New York; mode of transfer to Eng- 
land. 

17. General causes of early discontent in English colonies. 

18. How the French and English came into conflict in America. 

19. Account of decisive conflict at Quebec. 

20. Compare French claims in America before and after peace 

in 1763. 

21. Navigation acts ; purpose of Great Britain; effect on colonies. 

22. Taxation acts: on what articles (the three acts); the reasons 
for American resistance ; action by parliament in consequence of resist- 
ance. 

23. Actions against Massachusetts for especial resistance; reason 
for troops in Boston. (Parliament had not passed acts for the purpose 
of punishing the colonies until these in 1774O 

24. Purpose and acts of First Continental Congress. 

61 



62 

25. Response of Great Britain. Military events immediately fol- 
lowing — Lexington, Tieonderoga. 

26. Second Continental Congress. (Note that this body continued 
by common consent to the end of the war.) Its policies at first — Bunker 
Hill — Washington in command. Expedition of Arnold and Montgomery 
into Canada. What further preparations for war were made by Great 
Britain ? 

27. Declaration of Independence. By whom drawn up? By whom 
adopted ? Nature of its contents. How did it change the avowed atti- 
tude of the colonists? Of the Tories? 

28. British evacuation of Boston (1776) and occupation of New 
York City (1776) and Philadelphia (1777). Three-fold British plan of 
1777; spoiled by Burgoyne's defeat (give account), St. Leger's defeat, 
and Howe's failure to receive orders. 

29. Result of Burgoyne's surrender on French negotiations. What 
did the French do for America? 

30. What able generals from other nations rendered aid, and how ? 

31. Tell the story of Arnold, from the beginning to the end of the 
Revolutionary war. 

2,2. What was accomplished by George Rogers Clark? This greatly 
affected the peace negotiations as it caused America to insist that the 
land between the Alieghanies and the Mississippi should be not English, 
French or Indian. 

22- How did the final British military surrender come about? 

34. Who negotiated the peace for America ? What were the terms ? 

35. Difficulties after the war: to make an efficient government; to 
dispose of the war debt. 

36. Articles of Confederation — framed 1777, but not ratified by 
all colonies until 1781, after which date delegates chosen under these 
Articles composed the Congress. Delay of Maryland, the last state, was 
until the larger states would agree to give up their lands west of the 
mountains to the country as a whole. 

37. Chief weaknesses of Articles of Confederation. 

38. Necessity of changing them arose finally from conflicts in trade 
of the various colonies. Convention at Philadelphia in 1787 developed 
present constitution. 

39. That same year the old congress organized as the Northwest 
Territory the present territory of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and 
Wisconsin. The plan of government and agreements of congress with 
this new Territory show statesmanship. See what some of these pro- 
visions were. 

40. Constitution had to be ratified by nine states to go into effect 
(between states ratifying). By Dec, 1788, nine had ratified. Elections 
for members of congress, senators and presidential electors were held. 



63 

41. Our constitution provides for a government in three branches 
— executive, legislative, judicial. There was dispute in the convention 
whether legislative should have one branch or two; and whether states 
should have equal representation in it or according to population. What 
plan was determined in the compromise made? 

42. In whom is the executive power vested? The judicial? 

43. Exactly how is president elected? (That is, now, there being 
a little change from the original plan.) 

44. What cabinet officers are there ? How chosen ? What powers 
have these officials? (What does the Constitution say about these mat- 
ters?) 

45. What powers over commerce, and over duties on imports and 
exports has Congress? 

46. There was much opposition to the ratification of the Constitu- 
tion. The great patriots Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry thought the 
central government would destroy the states. The central government 
was not made strong enough to suit Alexander Hamilton, yet he worked 
hard for the adoption. He with Madison and Jay wrote a wonderful 
explanation and defense of the Constitution in a periodical called "The 
Federalist". 

47. What check has the Supreme Court on Congress? If there is a 
suit under a law passed by Congress which reaches the supreme court, 
that body has the power in passing upon that suit to declare an act of 
congress void if the supreme court finds that congress has violated the 
Constitution in passing that act. The supreme court thus becomes the 
interpreter of the Constitution as well as of the laws, and of rights not 
definitely covered by law. 

48. How do national government and state government keep out of 
each other's way? They do not always, and the United States courts 
must decide which has jurisdiction. But the Constitution specifies certain 
things which congress may do, and certain things the states may not do. 

49. Why does a United States judge hold office for life? 

50. How does a bill become a law? Ordinarily it must be intro- 
duced by a member in one branch of the congress (say it is house of 
representatives), referred to a committee, recommended by that com- 
mittee, passed by the house, transmitted to the senate, referred there to a 
committee, recommended and passed and then signed by the President. 
Many bills are amended, either in committee or when up for vote. After 
a bill passed by the house is amended by the senate, it must be reported 
back to the house to see whether the house will concur in the amend- 
ments. If it does not concur, the bill is referred to a conference com- 
mittee which tries to decide how to compromise the question. The recom- 
mendations of that committee are usually concurred in by both branches. 

51. It appears from the above that much of the important work of 
8 legislature is committee work. 



6 4 

52. Explain the veto and how a bill may become a law in spite of it, 

53. Strong defenders of a strong government who wanted to give 
congress and the President all the authority that the constitution implies, 
such as Hamilton, came to be known as Federalists. Those who wanted 
less central government were called Republicans. Washington avoided 
belonging to a party at first but during his last term worked with 
Federalists. 

54. The first congress did not get together until some time after 
March 4, the appointed day. It was hard to reach New York (or any 
place) over the few and poor roads. Finally the votes of the presidential 
electors were counted and on April 30 (1789) Washington was in- 
augurated. 

55. Enumerate some of the duties this first President had to per- 
form. 

56. What were some big problems the new government had to face? 

57. Note especially that under the leadership of Hamilton (Sec'y 
of the Treasury) the new government agreed not only to pay all foreign 
loans of the war government, but also all domestic debts, including the 
redemption of the continental paper money, and even the respective 
states' war debts. 

58. Note how revenue was raised. 

59. France, our ally in the Revolution, was again in war with Great 
Britain, but after itself having had a revolution. (You should know at 
least a little about The French Revolution.) Washington insisted that 
United States remain neutral. 

60. But Great Britain had never withdrawn her troops from our 
Great Lakes outposts. How else did that country disregard our rights 
at this time? John Jay was sent to England to negotiate a new treaty 
to correct these matters, but England conceded little and Jay and the 
United States government were blamed by many people of our country. - 

61. Settlers in the valleys of the Ohio, Cumberland and Tennessee 
had become numerous. Their products were shipped via the Missis- 
sippi. Spaniards owned the lower part of it. Uncertainty about the 
right to ship worried the settlers, but Washington had a treaty negotiated 
which guaranteed right to reload to ocean steamers. This was abrogated 
later (1802) and this led to the desire to purchase Louisiana — the name 
then given to the entire area between Mississippi and Rockies. 

62. Rebellion in Pennsylvania; causes, action of government. 

63. Second president, John Adams. He had only 3 electoral votes 
more than Jefferson. France was unfriendly because we had not an- 
tagonized England. Adams handled the diplomacy so that the people of 
United States who were urging French alliance saw how untrustworthy 
was the French government at that time. (Read of the "X Y Z affair".) 
With the country united and France still insulting, preparations were 
made for war. But Napoleon Eonaparte then seized the government of 



65 

France and showed himself friendly to United States (at least for a 
time). 

64. When the government of Adams and the Federalists was vin- 
dicated congress went too far and passed the new Naturalization Act, 
an Alien Act and a Sedition Act. ( Sec what these were. ) These seemed 
un-American and caused the defeat of Adams and the election of Jefferson 
who opposed them. 

65. How did Jefferson's general attitudes differ from Washing- 
ton's? Yet Jefferson made no great changes in the conduct of the govern- 
ment. 

66. For our protection in the free use of the Mississippi rather than 
to gain territory Jefferson tried to buy an opening including New Orleans 
from Napoleon to whom Spain had ceded her land. The result was that 
Napoleon offered it all for $15,000,000 and thus we acquired the vast 
territory of Louisiana. (See No. 61.) 

67. What difficulties did Aaron Burr cause himself and his country? 

68. The English-French war was still causing us trouble at the end 
of Jefferson's term and Madison had it to deal with. Jefferson's admin- 
istration had reduced appropriations for army and navy, hence our mili-, 
tary power was especially small, and those other countries knew it. 

69. Read about the "Orders in Council" and about Napoleon's 
"Decrees" (affecting our commerce). 

70. The impressment of seamen (seizing them from our vessels on 
the grounds that they were British subjects) was bringing us toward war. 

71. The measures taken by Jefferson's and Madison's governments 
in 1807-1811 were poor and unpopular: ( 1 ) all our vessels were first for- 
bidden to leave port, (2) after its repeal, vessels were forbidden to trade 
with England or France, (3) trade with France was declared open by 
Madison on the statement of the French minister that unfriendly orders 
would be withdrawn, but that statement proved untrue. (4) congress 
passed an act that non-intercourse with cither country would be enforced 
if the other would officially withdraw restrictive decrees. ( 5 ) Napoleon 
withdrew his restrictive decrees so trade with Great Britain was 
prohibited. 

72. In contests about "impressment" our vessels were tired on. It 
was found that the English were arming the Indians of the northwest. 
Henry Clay pressed through congress a declaration of war. 

73. Our unpreparedness was retrieved by the valor and skill of our 
sailors. Oliver Perry won Lake Erie with his fleet ; our ships damaged 
English commerce all over the world. 

74. On land we did little. William Henry Harrison, who had de- 
feated a large Indian insurrection under Tecumseh in Western Ohio in 
181 1, took Detroit. But the British went up the Potomac and destroyed 
much of Washington. Thev failed at Ft. McHenrv before Baltimore. 



66 

Their failure was the occasion of the writing of the Star Spangled Ban- 
ner by Francis Scott Key. 

~^. England was again weary of war, and willing to meet our rep- 
resentatives to make peace. We gained no particular advantage in the 
peace. After it was signed but before it was reported the British planned 
an attack on New Orleans. This was repulsed through splendid general- 
ship of Andrew Jackson. 

/6. The Hartford Convention. When the committee from it reached 
Washington with the resolutions denouncing the war, they encountered 
rejoicing over the news of both Jackson's victory at New Orleans and 
the signing of the peace treaty. This New England group was a remnant 
of the Federalists, who had about died out. They were not loyal during 
the war for (i) they refused to send their militia into Canada when 
directed by the President, (2) they sold provisions to the enemy, (3) 
they did not subscribe their share of the war loan. 

yy. Monroe entered office with the Republican party as the only 
party with any strength. He travelled the country and preached national 
feeling. Before the end of the war of 1812, there had been the clash of 
parties — -the Federalists being one desiring harmonv with England, the 
Republican desiring harmony or alliance with France. European condi- 
tions removed the occasions for this difference after Napoleon's defeat 
at Waterloo in 1815. 

78. The South expected to develop manufactures as well as the 
North, so did not oppose high tariff in 1812 and 1816. Abundant Western 
lands at $1.25 per acre relieved any lack of employment and promoted 
immigration. 

79. The charter of the First National Bank ran from 1791 to 181 1. 
It was not then renewed, the reliance being placed on state banks. These 
state banks failed during the war of 1812. so after the close of the war 
the Republican party were ready to vote to charter another United States 
bank, which they had opposed before. 

80. Monroe re-elected with vote of all states. 

81. Learn essential prints of the Monroe Doctrine. This was really 
written by J. Q. Adams. It was written rather suddenly after an ar- 
rangement had almost been completed with England to protest against the 
threat of an alliance formed by Russia, Prussia, Austria and France to 
lestore Spain's possessions to her. Thus we kept out of entanglement 
with England. 

82. In 1819 Spain had given up her claim to western Florida and 
had sold us eastern Florida, not because she was willing, but because we 
insisted while Spain was distressed with revolts against her in South 
America. 

83. The large South American countries nevertheless gained free- 
dom from Spain.. (See No, 81.) 



6 7 

84. Before we had a title to Florida (unless, perhaps, the western 
end) Andrew Jackson pursued the Indans, who were injuring the settlers 
in Georgia, into Florida and destroyed the Spanish stronghold which aided 
them. This act, in 1818, was an act of war, hut our government c'aimed 
self-defense, blaming Spain for not controlling her own Indians. 

85. Removal of Indian dangers and steamboat service increased 
use of lands from Alleg 1 enies to Mississippi, north and south, even during 
War of 1812, and greatly at its close. What five states were admitted in 
1812 to 1820? 

86. The western settlers desired aid of roads and canals, which 
Madison at first favored. But he and Monroe decided the Consti- 
tution did not allow national appropriations for that purpose. So nothing 
was done nationally. 

87. When Monroe's second term was expiring the Republican party 
found itself in factions for and against federal aid for internal improve- 
ments and also representing different sections. Adams, of New England, 
and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, favored stretching the constitution to 
permit road-building; Crawford, of Georgia, the regular nominee (nomi- 
nated by his party friends in Congress, as all candidates had been up to 
this time), agreed with Monroe; Andrew Jackson, hero of New Orleans 
and of Indian fights had no definite policy, but announced that he was 
for the people against a congressional clique and Virginia Aristocracy. 
Electoral vote: Jackson, 99; Adams, 84; Crawford, 41 ; Clay, 37. 

88. Constitution provides President must have majority of electoral 
votes or House of Representatives shall decide among highest three, but 
that in that ballot each state shall have but one vote. Clay got his friends 
to vote for Adams. Adams appointed Clay Sec'y of State. Jackson's 
friends kept up an attack against the administration all four years, until 
at the next election Jackson was elected. 

89. There were 3 divergent interests for some time; ( 1 ) New Eng- 
land, with the standpoint of manufacturers and bankers, (2) the South, 
with the standpoint of aristocratic and slave-holding planters, ( 3 ) the 
West, (that is, people north of southern states and west of Allegheny 
mountains), with emphasis on democracy, that is, political equa'ity. (In 
the east and south only a small part of the people could vote as they had 
to hold a certain amount of property to do so. ) 

90. The policy of Adams and Clay to aid interstate improve- 
ments was not carried out by congress owing to sectional strife. The 
Erie canal was finished in 1825 with state but not national aid. The 
government did not aid canals; railroads now began to be built, and in 
the same policy they received no aid. If it had not been for this sec- 
tional feeling probably the government would have built many railroads 
and our railroads would today have been largely government-owned. 



68 

91. The most immediate friction in the administrations of Adams 
and Clay was on the tariff question. Tariff for revenue means the charg- 
ing of import duties purely as a convenient way of getting money for 
national expense. Tariff for protection means the charging of import 
duties on certain articles so that these articles produced in other countries 
must be sold here at prices as high as those at which like articles pro- 
duced in America can be sold here at a profit. The South was against a 
tariff of the latter kind, as the South produced nothing much that could 
be helped in that way, while the "protection" of the products of the 
North kept them from buying more cheaply. Read the general facts about 
the tariffs of 1824 and 1828, about the "nullification" by South Carolina 
in 1832, Jackson's action in respect to it, and the compromise tariff put 
through by Clay in 1833. 

92. The occasion of Webster's "Reply to Hayne" (1830) was a 
debate on the question whether the sale of public lands in the West 
should be stopped for a time. The speeches of Webster and Hayne had 
little to do with that question. But this speech by Webster is the best 
explanation of why a state cannot overrule a law of congress. Find out 
some of the points he made in the speech. 

93. Jackson was opposed to again chartering the National Bank 
(already chartered for 1816 to 1836), partly because of the political 
activity of the employees of the bank and its 25 branches. Many un- 
substantial state banks were growing up to finance land deals and farms, 
and a good deal was being invested in uncertain railroad enterprises. 
Payments were being made largely in the notes of these banks. What 
action about the public money and the payment for public lands did 
Jackson take which brought a crisis( mostly in Van Buren's adminis- 
tration) ? 

94. During the 12 years of Jackson and Van Buren the northern 
states which had had property qualifications for voting changed their 
constitutions and laws. The opposition to the Democratic-Republican 
party (the party of Jackson and Van Buren, and a branch of the single 
party which distinctly existed in terms of J. Q. Adams and Monroe) 
took form as the Whig party. Clay expected the nomination but it went 
to William Henry Harrison, like Jackson, an Indian war hero and man 
of the people. 

95. Jackson as President emphasized partisan politics and put his 
personal opinions and likes above wise counsel. He put into office his 
adherents, which had not been customary on a large scale until his day. 
He disregarded his excellent cabinet for the advice of a group of poli- 
ticians who are spoken of as the "kitchen cabinet." He is much praised 
(a) for promoting democracy, (b) for not permitting a state to defy 
a national law. 

96. Read or review the following points: (1) Introduction of 
slaver\' into the colonies (Virginia) ; (2) interference of navigation laws 



69 

with trade in West Indies; (3) peace between Great Britain, France 
and Spain at Utrecht in 1713; (4) prohibition of slavery in northwest 
territory by Ordinance of 1787; (5) the two provisions of the Constitu- 
tion which have to do with slavery; (6) prohibition of slave trade by 
laws in 1807, the earliest date permitted by the Constitution; (7) inven- 
tion of cotton gin (date?) which increased use of slaves in the South. 
Note the following facts : English traders started and pushed the slave 
trade. New Englanders made rum from West Indian sugar, sent it to 
Africa to be bartered for kidnapped natives, these were taken to the 
West Indies or South and exchanged for more sugar to make more rum. 
The treatment of the blacks on the sea was terrible — as bad as cannibal- 
ism. Sick ones were thrown overboard. Some suffocated in the holds of 
the ships. By the treaty of 1713 Great Britain secured a monopoly of 
this trade. Washington and other early statesmen, northern and south- 
ern, abhorred this business, but expected each state to see that slaves 
would not be mistreated and to a find a way to bring slavery to an end. 
Southern as well as northern people took an interest in the earliest 
abolition societies, and in the colonization of free negroes in Liberia, 
(1820). 

97. Slavery became a distinctly sectional question over the problem 
of its extension into the territory west of the Mississippi. Study occasion 
and terms of the Missouri Compromise. This compromise was in favor 
of the North. It is surprising that the South accepted it. It is the first bill 
passed by congress prohibiting slavery anywhere. (But see Ordinance of 
1787.) By 1820 all states north of Maryland had freed all slaves. 

98. Up almost to the Civil War the great part of the northern peo- 
ple were opposed to the extension of slavery, but had no intention of 
trying to end it in the states which had it. There were a few abolitionists 
who insisted that slavery end at once. After 1820 a southerner was 
deemed disloyal to his section if he favored "abolition". The abolitionists 
more and more troubled congress with resolutions, which after 1836 were 
treated with contempt by congress. General northern sentiment was 
against abolition and the leaders were several times attacked by mobs. 

99. There were only about 380,000 slave holders in the South in 
i860. There were about 5,000,000 non-slave-holding "poor" whites and 
about 3,500,000 slaves. The slave-holders were the spokesmen for all 
in the disagreements which followed and the southern white men readily 
entered the army. 

100. Texas and the Mexican War: In 1821 Mexico declared her 
independence of Spain. Americans in Texas, which was a province of 
Mexico, aided in that revolution. More Americans entered Texas. The 
Mexicans became jealous and oppressive. Texas revolted from Mexico 
in 1836 and made good her defense. After setting up her own govern- 
ment Texas asked United States to annex her. Mexico claimed Texas 
still belonged to her. Great Britain tried in every way to keep Texas 



7o 

from joining United States. Besides these reasons many people in the 
North did not want Texas because it would be one more slave state. 

101. The question of annexation of Texas arose first in Jackson's 
term (1836). Van Buren (1837-1841) was against annexation and so 
was Harrison (1841). But Harrison died after a few weeks in office, 
and the Vice-President, Tyler, became President. He promoted annexa- 
tion but congress rejected the treaty. But annexation was so popular 
that its friends elected Polk (1844) as President instead of Clay, largely 
on this question. 

102. The northern boundary between United States and Great 
Britain was also in dispute and Polk was for our claim of the line at 54 
degrees, 40 minutes. Great Britain claimed to 42 degrees, and refused to 
compromise at 49 degrees. In 1842 Webster had negotiated a treaty 
with Great Britain which settled the north-eastern boundary (with 
Canada) at about what we claimed. The north-west boundary was finally 
settled in 1846 at 49 degrees. 

103. Texas had a boundary dispute with Mexico which we took up. 
Mexico was threatening in her attitude and refused for a year to receive 
our envoy. Finally our troops were ordered into the disputed territory. 
Mexico attacked them. By the nearly unanimous vote of congress war 
was declared. 

104. In 1846 and 1847 Taylor starting from the border and Scott 
from Vera Cruz invaded Mexico. The latter captured the capital and 
then Mexico desired peace. Mexico ceded to United States California 
and most of the rest of our south-west. 

105. The Wilmot Proviso was introduced (but not passed) in 
connection with this treaty. What was it? 

106. Even in 1848 the slavery question did not enter into the na- 
tional election largely, although a Free-soil party, opposed to extension of 
slavery, made a first appearance. The Whigs nominated General Taylor 
who was a large slave-holder. The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass 
who believed each territory when entering the Union should decide about 
slavery for itself . 

107. Discovery of gold in California in 1848 increased interest in 
our western lands. California grew so fast that it was ready for ad- 
mission in 1850. This made the question of the organization of the 
territory more pressing. Feeling over the extension of slavery was in- 
tense. Congress was about evenly divided. Henry Clay proposed what 
has become known as the Compromise of 1850. Learn its five pro- 
visions. Clay, Calhoun and Webster were still in the Senate. Calhoun 
was carried in and had to have another read his speech. (He died the 
same month.) Webster disappointed many friends by speaking for the 
Compromise. Seward and Chase made the great speeches against it. 
Action was postponed, as it was known that Taylor would veto the bill 



7i 

if passed. But Taylor died and the bill was pushed through and signed 
by Fillmore. It was much in favor of the South. 

108. Read of Fugitive Slave Law and Underground Railroad. 
(At first and probably up to 1854 the new fugitive slave law was gen- 
erally obeyed and the Underground Railroad stopped.) 

109. In 1852 the slavery question was so quiet that another presi- 
dent. Pierce, was elected without a slavery contest. North and South 
were prospering. 

no. Before the next crisis over slavery there was much ado about 
Cuba. A number of Americans joined an expedition to help free it 
from Spain. Some of them were shot by Spaniards. The government 
of the United States expressed disapproval of the expedition. The South 
wanted Cuba joined to the United States. President Pierce instructed 
our envoys to England, France and Spain to try to bring this about. 
They met at Ostend, Belgium, and issued a statement that Spain should 
sell Cuba to the United States, and that if Spain refused, it would be 
proper for United States to take Cuba. Our government disavowed this 
"Ostend Manifesto." 

in. Stephen A. Douglas precipitated the next trouble, which led 
directly to the Civil War. He did it without cause and on his own 
responsibility. As member of a committee in the Senate he introduced 
in 1854 a bill providing that Nebraska territory should be organized on 
the principle of "squatter sovereignty", letting the people decide whether 
they should be slave or free. President Pierce and Jefferson Davis, 
Secretary of War, who favored the slave states, got him to improve his 
bill, dividing the territory into Kansas and Nebraska, and repealing the 
Missouri Compromise expressly. (Of course the bill as at first drawn 
would have repealed it so far as these territories went. It had been 
violated in principle by the Compromise of 1850.) After a hard fight the 
bill was passed. 

112. The result of this bill was to crystallize anti-slavery sentiment 
in the North. The Free-soil party was merged into the new Republican 
party. Uncle Tom's Cabin was published. The bill led directly to a 
rush for Kansas to help the pro-slavery party. They illegally organized 
the territory. There was bloodshed. President Pierce decided for the 
pro-slavery organization. Senator Charles Sumner made a speech 
against this and the Southern attitude. He especially censured Senator 
Butler of South Carolina. The next day, Preston Brooks, his nephew 
and a member of congress, slipped up behind Sumner when alone at his 
desk and nearly beat him to death with his cane. The South regarded 
this cowardly assassin as a hero. So violent had sectional feeling become. 

113. The Republicans nominated Fremont for President. The Dem- 
ocrats nominated a northern man, Buchanan. Pierce now restored order 
and justice in Kansas. The country was relieved and preferred Bu- 



72 

chanan who had no particular theory on slavery to Fremont who was 
against it. Thus they hoped to preserve the Union. 

114. Tranquility was again disturbed by the Dred Scott decision in 
1857. This was a case pushed to the Supreme Court by Abolitionists. 
The decision was that if a slave owner takes a slave into a free state that 
does not make the slave free. The Supreme Court went aside from the 
case in hand to say that a slave has no rights of a human being, being 
property, as a horse is. This roused the North. 

115. Anti-slavery and pro-slavery men both organized Kansas as 
a state. Buchanan sent the pro-slavery constitution to the Senate and 
recommended the admission of Kansas with that constitution. Douglas 
was aroused to the misapplication of the principle he had stood for. 
Kansas was not admitted. Douglas ran for re-election as senator just 
after that with Lincoln as his opponent. He won by a few votes but 
Lincoln made him register against the Southern doctrines to do so. This 
caused the split of the Democratic party. 

116. In 1859 John Brown's raid occurred. Read of it. 

117. In i860 Douglas controlled the Democratic party convention to 
nominate presidential candidate. He would not allow a declaration that 
it is the duty of the government to protect slavery wherever it may exist. 
A few Southern radicals stirred up sentiment on this to withdraw and 
hold another convention that would pass the resolution. They nominated 
Breckenridge. A group of men from the border states put an additional 
ticket in the field, hoping to reconcile all parties on a platform of old- 
time harmony and union. Meanwhile the Republican party nominated 
Lincoln. 

118. The South was so wrought up that before the election many 
affirmed that they would withdraw from the LInion if Lincoln were 
elected. They had no good reason for such attitude, as Lincoln declared 
only against extension of slavery. It was anybody's victory until the 
votes were counted. 

119. The South prepared to carry out the threat to secede. The 
friends of the South in Buchanan's cabinet proceeded to put into their 
hands a large part of the property of United States to use against the 
country, while the President seemed helpless to do anything. Maryland, 
Delaware and Missouri, as well as the solid South, were unfriendly to 
the Union. Before Lincoln's inauguration the Southern Confederacy 
was well under way. But there was no violence. 

120. Lincoln in his inaugural address said everything possible that 
was kindly and conciliatory toward the South. But the trouble at Ft. 
Sumter was on. Read about this and the results. 

121. Lincoln's great plan, while organizing an army, was to hold 
the border states to loyalty. He was largely successful. 

122. In what respects were the North's resources superior? 



73 

123. The South had the following advantages: (1) being on the 1 
defensive; (2) securing much of the Union's war material (see No. 
ri 9) >' (3) many officers trained in Mexican war; (4) holding the Mis- 
sissippi; (5) sympathy of England (latter did not prove as helpful as 
South expected) ; (6) internal political unity. 

124. Formation of West Virginia. How? Why? 

125. Main facts about the following battles : First Bull Run, Mal- 
vern Hill, Second Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, 
and Gettysburg. 

126. Note in above that Lincoln believed McC'.ellan prolonged the 
war by not moving rapidly up the Peninsula, previous to Malvern Hill, 
and by not pressing the enemy after Antietam. 

127. Main facts about following battles: Capture of Forts Henry 
and Donaldson, Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), capture of New Orleans, 
siege of Vicksburg, Murfreesboro, Chickamauga, Chattanooga (Lookout 
Mt., Missionary Ridge). 

128. Grant's campaign against Richmond. 

129. Movements of Sherman and Thomas at same time and results. 

130. How did Lincoln show wisdom in the Trent affair? 

131. Why was the invention of the Monitor important for the 
preservation of the government? 

132. What were the statements in the proclamation made by Lin- 
coln after the Battle of Antietam? 

133. What does the 13th Amendment provide? 

134. Give a brief account of Lincoln's assassination. 

135. Andrew Johnson, without authority of congress began to 
"reconstruct" the Southern states on a plan proposed by Lincoln but 
which Lincoln had not expected to use after the war without action of 
congress. During the war Lincoln reorganized any loyal government 
started by ten per cent of the people of a state. Johnson had been head 
of such a government in Tennessee. 

136. Under Johnson's plan eight southern states started govern- 
ments, ratified the 13th Amendment and sent senators and representatives 
to congress. Many of these were prominent secessionists. Congress 
would not admit them to their seats and reprimanded the President. 

137. Congress then submitted the 14th Amendment. Read it. The 
southern states were expected to ratify it. They refused because of its 
third section. What was it? Congress then declared that the Southern 
states had not secured re-entrance into the Union. 

138. Johnson then abused congress in a number of speeches Senti- 
ment was against him and the congress elected in 1866 was composed of 
radical Republicans. 

139. This new congress divided the South into military districts 
with governors over them. Under this military occupation the Southern 



74 

states were reconstructed, largely by negro votes, as the Republican con- 
gress desired, ratified both 14th and 15th Amendments. (See the 15th.) 
The last of them was readmitted in 1870. 

140. Under these military governments and the new state govern- 
ments, which were under military domination, the ignorant negroes ran 
many of the Southern states in a disgraceful and ruinous manner. This 
led to the frightening of the negroes from voting by a band of Southern 
night-riders called the Ku-Klux Klan. They ran out of the country 
many Northern men who had taken political jobs in the South or sought 
gain or office through the help of negroes, and who encouraged the 
negroes to keep the governments and prompted the mismanagement. 
These men were known as "Carpetbaggers." (Sense of term?) 

141. Congress forbid President Johnson from removing his cabinet 
members without its consent. He removed Stanton, Secretary of War, 
for oppressing the South. This, he believed, his constitutional right. 
The House of Representatives impeached him. The Senate lacked one 
vote of the two-thirds necessary to convict him. 

142. Grant was President from 1869 to 1877. He let the radical 
Republicans continue the soldiers in the South. He proved unable to 
check politics for personal advantage of politicians and of wealthy men 
who were controlling politics in return for privileges. Some of these 
privileges were (a) high tariffs, (b) land grants to railroads, (c) sale 
of public lands so that individuals could get great tracts, (d) neglect to 
replace war issues of bank currency with some guaranteed national 
money, (e) favoritism in freight rates to certain shippers and localities. 

143. The Union Pacific railroad begun under Lincoln's administra- 
tion was finished in 1869. The output of iron increased 100 fold be- 
tween 1865 and 1875. Speculation caused a panic in 1873. This was 
blamed partly on (d) above and at Grant's second election a party called 
the Greenback party was in the field. Two years later (1878) in the 
congressional election that party polled over a million votes. This was 
a protest against all the abuses mentioned in 142, as congress had passsed 
a law to take effect in 1879 taking care of (d). Read "the resumption of 
specie payments." 

144. Hayes was the candidate of a reform wing of the Republican 
party and was opposed for nomination by the bosses of that party. Read 
of the peculiar circumstances of his election. 

145. The Republican bosses did all they could to elect him against 
Tilden and then expected him to do their bidding. He would not and 
they hindered him in many ways. They would not let him get a second 
term. He did much to reform and improve the government. By wise 
action he ended a serious railroad strike. 

146. "Free silver" first became an issue in Grant's administration. 
During Grant's administration the silver in a dollar got to be worth over 



75 

a dollar. Free coinage of silver into dollars had been provided before 
that, but nobody wanted silver coined into dollars. So in- 1873 a new law 
was passed that no more silver dollars should be coined. Just after that 
great quantities of silver ore were discovered in U. S. Then the Western 
people wanted free coinage of silver again. 

147. Learn what the Bland-Allison Act (a compromise of the free 
silver question ) was. Hayes vetoed it. It was passed over his veto. 

148. The Republican bosses opposed to Hayes prevented him from 
running for a second term but could not nominate a man of their own 
and Garfield was nominated and elected. But Arthur, one of the bosses, 
became Vice-President. Garfield started a more vigorous reform admin- 
istration than that of Hayes. He was assassinated by a man he would 
not appoint to office so that Arthur might be President. 

149. But Arthur gave a good administration, not favoring his 
former political friends. In his term civil service laws were first passed. 
What are they? The politicians turned against Arthur and nominated 
Blaine (1884). He was defeated by Cleveland, who became the first 
Democratic President since Buchanan. 

150. Cleveland divided offices between Northern and Southern men. 
This displeased the Northern men who helped elect him. He had prom- 
ised not to make appointments on party lines but did not keep the promise. 
This House of Representatives was Democratic but the Senate was Re- 
publican. This made it difficult for the President to do much. He recom- 
mended a lower tariff but none was passed. The high tariff was the 
cause of a large balance in the national treasury. 

151. Many United States bonds were outstanding but not due, and 
it would disturb banking to pay them before they were due. Cleveland's 
administration ended with $100,000,000 in the treasury. 

152. The years of Cleveland's first presidency ( 1885-1889) were 
those in which (a) a nation wide labor organization — Knights of Labor, 
succeeded by American Federation of Labor — grew to great power, (b) 
great combinations of capital, generally spoken of as trusts, began to 
control industries, (c) discrimination by railroads was dealt with by 
laws (first, state laws, which were set aside by decisions of the supreme 
court; next, by the establishing of the Interstate Commerce Commission, 
the requirement that rates be published, and the railroads should not join 
together to divide business between them (pool the business). 

153. Many strikes occurred in this term. Look up the Haymarket 
Square horror. 

154. The high tariff advocates won in the election of Harrison over 
Cleveland. Blaine refused to run. Harrison appointed him secretary of 
state. He was more active and forceful than the President. He made 
the Germans back down when they tried to seize the Samoan Islands 
(look up in geography). He got the question of the right to Behring sea 



76 

fisheries submitted to arbitration — although the board of arbitration later 
decided against the United States, that is, decided that it is an open sea 
and not exclusively ours. Our navy was built up. 

155. The tariff of 1890 (McKinley tariff) increased rates and raised 
prices. Congress proceeded to spend the surplus (see Nos. 150 and 151). 
Much went for increased pensions. The Sherman silver act (1890) sup- 
planted the Bland- Allison act (see No. 147). The Sherman act was 
passed to satisfy the Western Republicans. 

156. The small states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, 
Washington, Idaho and Wyoming were admitted to increase Republican 
votes. But the West was restless. Many entered a new "People's Party" 
which tried to unite Western, farming and laboring interests. Business 
depression and high prices were added as causes of dissatisfaction and the 
Democrats were called back to power, President, Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

157. Cleveland again could not get Congress to reduce the tariff. 
(A new bill, the Wilson-Gorman bill, made changes but few real reduc- 
tions.) The Harrison administration reduced the gold reserve, for re- 
deeming United States notes and bonds. Cleveland made desperate ef- 
forts to maintain the government's credit. He had to call the large 
bankers of the East to his aid. This made him unpopular. 

158. Other causes of Cleveland's unpopularity were (a) his use of 
federal troops to protect United States mails when there was a great 
railroad strike, centering in Chicago, (b) his disapproval of the action of 
the United States minister in taking charge of the Hawaiian Islands, (c ) 
continual business depression and prices high relative to wages, (d) re- 
peal of the Sherman silver act (1893). 

159. What was Coxey's Army ? 

160. One popular act of Cleveland, in which he was unanimously 
sustained by House and Senate, was his forcing England to withdraw 
from a portion of Venezuela and to submit her claim to it to arbitration. 
(Principle of Monroe Doctrine.) 

161. Resumption of free silver coinage (see No. 146) was the 
measure most emphasized by the Democratic party in the campaign for 
President in 1896. Their candidate was William Jennings Bryan. He 
was supported by Western people interested in the prosperity of the 
silver industry, by others who thought free silver would make money 
more abundant, and by the South which had been since Civil War and 
is still solidly Democratic. Depression in business under Cleveland and 
fear that it would continue to grow worse if there were free coinage of 
silver, elected the Republican nominee who promised plenty of work and 
a "full dinner pail." . - 

162. The promises of the President-elect were fulfilled after he had 
been in office a year or two. The new "Dingley" tariff (1897) was not 



17 

much of a change but confidence in the safety of business had been re- 
stored. 

163. Gold was discovered in Alaska in 1896 and there was a greal 
rush to the Klondyke region. The increase in production there and in 
South Africa largely put free silver to rest, as there was plenty of gold 
to coin. 

164. Look up causes of Spanish-American* War. Also look up 
battles of Manila Bay, San Juan Hill (or E! Caney), and Santiago 
Harbor. 

165. The city of Manila was not taken by our land forces, who had 
to be transported across the Pacific, until August, the Bay having been 
taken May I, 1898. 

166. Look up terms of peace with Spain in [898. 

167. We had on our hands problems of Porto Rico, Cuba and the 
Philippines. The first gave no trouble but was organized with a govern- 
ment unlike that of a state or territory and not provided for by our Con- 
stitution (native lower house elected by inhabitants ; as upper house a 
council with veto power over acts of lower house and with executive 
powers; the President appoints the council). 

r68. A military governor had charge of Cuba until a constitution 
was formed, President and congress elected and government as an in- 
dependent country started (1902). It was provided in the Cuban con- 
stitution that if at any time order is not maintained United States may 
take temporary charge. This happened and we had charge again in 
1906-1909 (in Roosevelt's presidency), as it seemed impossible to have 
orderly elections held. 

169. Aguinaldo was the native Philippine leader. He became ac- 
tive against Spain when our troops took the islands, but when his au- 
thority was denied by the United States he led an insurrection against 
the United States government in the Philippines which required us to 
keep an army there for three years. There was opposition to our ac- 
quiring the Philippines in the first place. Congress made President 
McKinley their absolute ruler. The Democrats opposed this and the 
presidential campaign in 1900 was largely on the question of keeping 
the Philippines. The re-election of McKinley decided that they be kept. 
He then appointed William H. Taft to organize them. He started plans 
by which the natives should participate more and more in their govern- 
ment, and whereby education should be encouraged. 

170. We dropped the Southern reconstruction with No. 140 (and 
No. 144 at end). When an effort was made in Harrison's term to get 
the Southern negroes to the polls again the Southern states began to 
pass laws that no one should vote without certain qualifications, such as 
ability to read, payment of taxes, and the right of his grandfather to 
vote. These qualifications excluded most negroes. 



78 

xji. During the Spanish-American war the Hawaiian question was 
settled by its annexation to United States. 

172. While the "Pan-American" Exposition, participated in by 
the United States, Mexico and Central and South America, was being 
held at Buffalo in 1901, President McKinley while visiting it was shot 
by an anarchist. Theodore Roosevelt, the Vice-President, filled out the 
rest of the term (1901-1905). He proved to be as popular as McKinley. 

173. Roosevelt successfully advocated (1) preservation of forests 
by national ownership and care of certain tracts, (2) reclamation of 
Western desert lands by irrigation built by the government, (3) steps 
to start a canal from Atlantic to Pacific, (4) expansion of civil service, 
( 5 ) improvement of our consular service through a merit system (Do 
you understand what duties a consul performs?), (6) regulation of large 
corporations, (7) strengthening of the navy, (8) federal pure food and 
drug law, (9 arbitration of labor disputes, (10) power of Interstate 
Commerce Commission over railroad rates. 

174. In 1850, about the time that gold was discovered in California, 
we agreed with Great Britain to jointly control any canal from Atlantic 
to Pacific. Completion of railroads to the Pacific made canal less neces- 
sary and matter was dropped. In 1881 France secured the rights across 
the Isthmus of Panama and started to build it but failed. When we 
desired to take the matter up in 1901 we got the treaty with England 
changed and bought the French Panama Company's interests for $40,- 
000,000, but the- government of Columbia, the South American country 
which included the Isthmus, would make no agreement with us. Con- 
gress decided to build the canal by the Isthmus if the strip of land could 
be secured and if not to build it by Nicaraugua. The people of Panama 
were frantic over the prospect of losing the canal and with a little 
encouragement from Roosevelt revolted from Columbia and offered to 
arrange for the right of way. (Congress recently decided to pay Colum- 
bia $25,000,000 for the territory we caused her to lose.) 

175. The successful construction of the Canal, opened in 1913, 
was a great engineering triumph. It was accomplished under the United 
States War Department with General George Goethals in charge. The 
sanitary measures taken were as important as the great cuts and concrete 
locks. 

176. By a law passed in 1904 the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion's power to prevent rebates and discrimination in rates was increased 
in several directions, particularly to the power to determine what is a 
reasonable rate in any case. 

177. The question of trusts, great combinations of capital which 
control or nearly control certain commodities, became important about 
1896. These combinations have also great political influence. The Sher- 
man anti-trust law of 1890 prohibited certain types of trusts but other 



79 

types flourished in greatly increasing numbers during the prosperity after 
1897. The big capitalists feared Roosevelt, and he succeeded in getting 
laws requiring certain publicity of the acts of large corporations and 
preventing abuses in the issue of their stock and in combinations with 
other corporations. But many problems arising from the great power of 
these trusts are still on our hands; 

178. Roosevelt undertook personally to get employees and employ- 
ers together when a large coal strike was threatened. He was very suc- 
cessful. He was re-elected for a full term by large majority in 1904. 

179. In McKinley's term we figured in world affairs not only in 
the Spanish American war but also in the Boxer uprising in China. 
Look this up and see the part United States played. It was the modera- 
tion and skill of John Hay, our Secretary of State, that prevented the 
"partition" of China among Great Britain, France, Japan, and others, 
and that won for us China's friendship until now. 

180. Roosevelt further strengthened our influence by managing to 
bring to a settlement (1905) the war which had been waged for two 
years between Russia and Japan. 

181. Rooosevelt left office still popular. William H. Taft, his suc- 
cesssor and personal choice, could not get Congress to carrry out progres- 
sive measures." By the end of his term the Republican party had split 
and a new Progressive party nominated Roosevelt. This gave the elec- 
tion to Woodrow Wilson, Democrat, in 1912. 

182. One progressive measure of the Taft administration was me 
establishment of the parcel post. (Rural free delivery had been estab- 
lished under Cleveland's second administration.) Under Taft s adminis- 
tration was inaugurated the automobile as the chief agency of local 
transportation, supplanting the horse, and largely supplanting the electric 
car and local steam trains as the electric street car had supplanted horse- 
drawn vehicles in 1887 to 1891. 

183. In Roosevelt's administration occurred the great Baltimore 
fire and great San Francisco earthquake. Look them up — also the great 
disasters (Chicago fire, Boston fire, Charleston earthquake, Galveston 
flood, Johnstown flood, Ohio valley flood of 1913.) 

184. The Wilson Democratic congress passed a new tariff (the 
Underwood law) which reduced duties. In Taft's term a constitutional 
amendment permitting tax on incomes was ratified. So a tax was placed 
on incomes over $3000. 

185. A new feature of the national banking system, the Federal 
Reserve Bank plan, was provided by Congress in 1913. The various 
national banks hold stock in the Federal Reserve Banks and the latter 
furnish them money when they need it. This saves banks from failure. 
It was of great benefit in making credit safe during the World War. 



8o 

[86. In 1914 the World War began between Germany and Austria 
on the one side and England, France, Belgium and Russia on the other. 
(Smaller nations or those bearing minor part not mentioned.) Belgium 
had nothing to do with it at first but Germany invaded Belgium. United 
States sold arms and provisions to England and France, but Germany 
could find no way to get any to her shores if she bought them. Germany 
accused us of helping her enemies. The Wilson administration tried 
hard to keep peace. 

187. Meanwhile Mexicans in the unsettled condition of their coun- 
try attacked people on our borders and in many instances mistreated our 
citizens in Mexico. The Mexican president was not friendly to us and 
the people generally were hostile, as they had been ever since the Mexican 
War. Twice (1914 and 1916) we sent soldiers into Mexico to try to 
bring to justice Mexicans for whom the Mexican government denied 
responsibility. Germany encouraged Mexico to come to war with United 
States. In spite of all peace was preserved and now ( 1922 ) seems to be 
on a sure footing of law and order. 

188. Wilson was re-elected because of his popularity for avoiding 
war. But the Germans were beginning to attack with submarines our 
vessels which carried goods to England. They sunk these ships. Finally 
they sunk a great passenger ship (the Lusitania) with many American 
passengers. Germany apologized but declared the seas closed to us 
except certain restricted paths. We had been learning meanwhile of the 
abuse of the Belgians and French when their villages came into German 
power. We also learned of a German spy system in America. The peo- 
ple were ready for war which was declared in 1917. 

189. Our administration raised a great army by drafting all men 
from 21 to 30 years of age; it raised large sums by liberty bond sales; it 
created a great transportation service by buying, commandeering (100 of 
these were German ships tied up in our ports since 19 14) and building 
vessels. It manufactured vast quantities of war material in a few weeks. 
It built and stuffed great storehouses with supplies, it built great camps 
and drilled 4,000,000 men, it transported half of them to France in spite 
of the submarines. It caught and imprisoned most of the German spies 
and the worst of the German sympathizers, it kept the friendship of the 
rest of the Germans and Austrians in America, it increased the produc- 
tion of crops. 

190. Our armies in France built great terminals and rail lines; 
soon learned the art of war, showed great courage and skill in every 
engagement. Italy was already joined to our allies, but a short time after 
we entered the war Russia quit because of internal dissensions. This 
enabled Germany to throw great force against the Western front (East- 
ern France) where we were helping. They made a great drive for Paris 
which was stopped at its critical moment by the wonderful bravery of 



8i 

our marines at Chateau-Thierry. After that the Germans were grad- 
ually pushed back. The Americans drove them in in some of the most 
difficult regions. After the Americans took Sedan on a straight line to 
important German cities, Germany gave up. 

191. Germany laid down her arms, surrendered all cannon, gave 
Alsace-Lorraine to France, withdrew from Belgium, agreed to pay for 
damages to Belgium and some other damages, gave up her war ships and 
submarines, admitted the Allies to her principal war ports, gave the 
Allies part of her railroad equipment, gave up her provinces in Africa, 
allowed the allies to divide up Austria-Hungary, gave up her Chinese 
port to Japan. 

192. The German Emperor fled into exile in Holland and Germany 
became a Republic. The other governments signed peace treaties with 
Germany. The new governments formed in the breaking up of Austria- 
Hungary and Bulgaria got started. 

193. Meanwhile the United States did not sign with Germany, as 
the treaty negotiated by President Wilson (who went to France for the 
purpose) involved our joining a world League of Nations. The senate 
would not ratify a treaty with this feature. 

194. The question of the League of Nations was largely responsi- 
ble for the election of Harding over Cox. The people, like the Senate, 
were afraid of being mixed up in it. Besides they were dissatisfied when 
they learned of some mistakes made in managing the war, particularly 
in the extravagant purchase of supplies and then the failure to have them 
at the right place at the right time. There was an idea too that the 
Wilson administration conceded too much to the demands of the great 
number of workers in government service or in service controlled by 
the government (especially the railroads), that the government had run 
the railroads badly while it controled them during the war, and that the 
government had many unnecessary employees. 

195. The Harding administration began at the time of a reaction 
which almost stopped production in many lines which had increased 
facilities under war conditions, and of a fall in prices of farm products 
which suddenly fell to half value or less while there was little reduction 
of other prices. This was naturally followed by a serious shortage of 
employment. Exports were largely stopped because the currency of 
most European countries has come to be of small and uncertain value. 
We have probably the most complicated economic situation in our 
history. 

196. At the close of the War (1919) the 18th Amendment to the 
Constitution prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors 
was ratified. In 1920 the 19th Amendment was added, giving women 
equal rights of voting with men. What does the 17th Amendment pro- 
vide? 



82 

ig 1 /. President Harding, ignoring the League of Nations, which 
had started without the U. S., called a Conference of the countries of 
the world at Washington to attempt an agreement on the reduction of 
naval armament. Charles E. Hughes, Secretary of State of U. S., at the 
opening of the Conference, proposed a great reduction of navies. This, 
and many other important agreements, have been embodied in treaties 
which it is hoped all the powers will ratify. Peace with Germany was 
finallv declared. 



AGRICULTURE 



i. How the soil is made. Kinds of soil — composition of each. 

2. Retentiveness of water by soil — experiment to show it. 

3. The elements needed by plants. How they get their food. 

4. The materials needed by plants likely to be missing from soils 
—phosphate, potash, nitrate. Sources of phosphate, potash and nitrates. 

5. How plants get nitrogen of the air — the leguminous plants with 
root nodules with bacteria which work up the nitrogen into nitrates. 

6. Soil water. The water table. How roots reach after water. 
Sprinkling tends to cause shallow rooting. The deep rooting of drought- 
resisting plants. 

7. Injury to most plants and soils of lack of drainage. How to 
drain fields. 

8. Conservation of soil water by cultivation. The dust mulch 
breaks capillary contact of soil with air. Experiment to show this. 

9. Sour soil. Test. Remedy. 

10. Exhaustion of soil by planting same crop year after year. 
Peculiarly exhausting effects of certain crops, notably tobacco. Small 
removal of fertility if dairy cattle are raised. Help of farm animals to 
preserve fertility. Importance of conservation of fertility. 

it. Adapting crop to soil. Help from experts. Value of ex- 
perience of farmers in the neighborhood. (But one should not be too 
much influenced if only a few experiments have been tried.) 

12. Importance of preparation of seed bed. Time of plowing. 
Depth of plowing. Harrowing. When discing may be a substitute for 
plowing. 

13. Planting of wheat and corn. Exact practical methods. 

14. .Necessity for cultivation of crops — its several advantages 
Mode of cultivation of corn, potatoes, beets. 

15. The hot bed, its principle and construction. Difference of cold 
frame — its use. 

16. Why certain plants are transplanted. What ones can and can- 
not be transplanted. 

17. How and why plants are thinned. 

t8. Rotation of crops: purpose. Practical rotations in Ohio and 
reasons they are good. 

19. "Green manure" as a fertilizer — when profitable. 

20. Proper treatment of animal manure for the conservation of its 
benefits. 

21. Selection of seed (a) in the field, (b) determination of its 
vitality, (c) determining the purity of small seeds (such as clover) which 

83 



84 

are purchased. Why northern grown seeds and varieties are often 
preferred. 

22. Treatment of seeds to prevent certain diseases, as oats to pre- 
vent smut and potatoes to prevent scab. 

23. Characteristics of a good wheat crop (good stand of wheat). 
of a good corn crop, of a good potato crop, of a good oats crop. 

24. Description of the harvest of each of the above. 

25. The heating of grains and grasses, of what it consists and how 
prevented. 

26. Characteristics of a fine ear of yellow dent corn. 

27. How the barberry injures the wheat. The life history of the 
Hessian fly. 

28. The general action of the reaper, reaper and binder, thresher. 

29. Spraying potatoes (and other vegetables) for insect pests. 
Material used and mode of applying. 

30. Kinds of insects not reached by spraying. Modes of treating 
them. 

31. Grafting. Several kinds and how to make them. 

32. The manner of raising young new orchard trees. Why not 
raise them direct from seeds of the best specimens ? 

33. Pruning. Time. How to remove limbs of some size. Other 
directions. Preferred shape of orchard trees. 

34. Cultivation of the orchard. 

35. Chief orchard twig pests: San Jose scale; wooly aphis; pear 
blight; peach yellows: treatment of these. 

36. Times of spraying apples, reasons. Benefits of the fruit. 

37. Orchard insect pests which attack the trunk or bark, or roots. 
Treatment. 

3S. Work of birds, of beneficial insects, of toads. 

39. Strawberries. How they are propagated, planted, cared for. 
The peculiarity of most varieties as to pollination. Why the beds must 
usually be moved after several years. 

40. Raspberries. How propagated and pruned. 

41. Gooseberries and currants. Treatment. Enemies and their 
treatment. 

43. Cucumbers. How planted. How protected from chief enemy. 

44. Sweet potatoes. Difference between potato and sweet potato 
botanically. How they are planted and transplanted. 

45. Root crops. How seeded and tended. The place taken by 
these in some crop rotations and why. 

46. Onions. The several ways of planting and producing both 
"green" and "old" onions. 

47. Tobacco. How the young plants are protected from weeds and 
from hot sun. 



85 

48. Crop improvement. How such improvements as doubling the 
sugar in beet sugar are attained. How new varieties are produced. 
Origin of bearded wheat and of naval oranges. 

49. Work of Ohio Experiment Station at Wooster. Read at least 
one of its publications. 

50. Distinction between characteristics of bacon type and lard type 
of hogs. Description of Berkshires, Poland Chinas, Duroc Jerseys. 
Feeding of hogs. Advantages of keeping them. 

51. Advantages of pure-bred stock. Grading up stock. How fine 
breeds were originally produced. Registering of stock. 

52. The Merino sheep; its description and points of superiority. 
Description of Lincoln and Shropshire sheep. 

53. How sheep should be housed. Their feeding, washing, shear- 
ing. How the wool clip is handled and marketed. 

54. Difference between beef and dairy cattle (quite full statement). 
Description of leading beef types. How they are fattened and when 
marketed. 

55. Description of Guernsey, Jersey and Holstein cows and bulls. 
Feeding of dairy cows, their housing and other care. The dry period 
of the cow, the calf and its weaning. 

56. Care of milk, traced from washing the cow's udders to the 
marketing of the milk and its consumption. 

57. Composition of milk. Standard test for percent of butter fat. 

58. How butter is made — full account. Reasons for growth of 
butter production by creameries. 

59. Utilization of skim milk and butter milk. Source of cheese. 

60. What is meant by a standard cow-test. (Need not learn de- 
tails.) 

61. Silage. Kinds. The silo. Its construction, how filled and 
emptied. Character of silage. Its advantages. 

62. Balanced rations. Food substance to be included. Approxi- 
mate proportions desirable for horses and cows. Deficiencies of certain 
foods. How to supplement them to supply the other food elements. 
Futher considerations in diet. (You are not expected to learn exact fig- 
ures to express the amounts or ratios, but you should know enough to 
appreciate their meaning when you look them up.) 

63. Chickens. Egg and meat breed characteristics. Names and 
chief marks of some excellent breeds — egg, meat and general purpose. 
How to feed chickens. How to prevent pests and rid them of pests. 
Housing. How to get maximum egg production. How to operate at a 
profit. General description of incubator and of brooder. 



86 

64- Bees. Sketch of a hive, that is to show the interior. Kinds 
of bees. How bees are propagated. How the young are fed. Food of 
bees, in summer, in winter. The swarming of bees. 

65. Characteristics of a good draft horse. How mules are bred. 
Why they are preferred for some purposes. 

66. Weeds and weed control. 

67. Power machinery on the farm. Development of gasoline and 
oil engines. Some of the work done by them. 

68. Some improved appliances for the farm home. Water supply ; 
sanitary arrangements. 



READING 

i. The subject divides into beginning and primary grade reading, 
middle grade reading and upper grade reading or literature. For the 
first of these we are especially dependent on the adopted books or system. 

2. The manual of some excellent method ought to be studied. The 
alphabet method has been entirely discarded in Ohio. It faults are ( 1 ) 
it begins with letters and symbols which are meaningless to the child, 
(2) the names of the letters differ from their sounds, (3) there is for a 
long time no chance for the use of what is learned. 

3. All worthy methods begin with words or sentences or stories. 
The tendency is toward the latter — to gain interest in a story and then 
express some lively part of it in script or print, and then teach the words 
(or some of the words) composing the sentence or rhyme which the 
child knows expresses the "story" (that is, the memorized bit of it 
selected out). 

4. Phonic drill must soon follow for it is not enough for the chil- 
dren to know these words — they must be learning how to make out 
other words through the sounds expressed by certain combinations of 
letters. Good systems are planned to give abundant practice in this. The 
expressions sight words, those of which the children are told the sound, 
and blend words, which they make out from their phonic elements are 
used. 

5. The play instinct is utilized in primary reading ( 1 ) in having 
the children match like words, be first to find words ,etc. (2) in drama- 
tization. Be able to describe at least two good devices for word 
acquisition. 

6. The tendency at present is to dramatize almost all the reading 
lessons in primary grades. Perhaps dramatization should be confined 
to those made thereby clearer to the child. Select at least two good 
primary stories and plan their dramatization. 

7. Use should be made of words as learned by giving directions for 
action and the like. Also the children's experiences should be used for 
some oral discussion followed by blackboard stories (sentences) based on 
them. 

8. Silent reading — thought getting — is of more value than oral 
reading. So teachers by questions lead the children to seek the thought 
and to be interested in getting the thought. And they are required to 
read orally the thought, not the separate words. 

9. The value of rapid silent reading was not widely recognized 
until recently. The rapid reader gets the thought better. This is of 
importance in all grades. 

87 



88 

io. Reading after the first year should build on the vocabularies 
and powers (as of making out words phonetically) already acquired. 
There should be no relapse into mere oral reading or mere word-calling. 

ii. The teacher should do some selecting in the middle grade read- 
ing and not take the lessons as they come. First have real aims in the 
year's reading, next have an aim in each day's lesson. Use some drama- 
tization. Sometimes read to the class as an example of expression. 

12. Some work must be done beforehand in preparing them on new 
and difficult words of the reading lesson. It is not necessary for them 
always to master every word but you will have to tell them how to pro- 
nounce them at least. Be sure you know how. 

13. Each child called upon should read enough to have some real 
thought or thoughts in the selection. Some teachers make the mistake 
of having each child read a single sentence around the class. Better call 
on only part of the class than break up the selection in that way. 

14. After each reads opportunity should usually be given for him 
to criticize his own reading and. then for the class to criticize it. The 
child should not then read it over again, however. 

15. The natural situation in oral reading is for some one to read 
to us what we do not know and what we do not have in print before us. 
Some teachers use an easy supplementary book — just one copy for the 
class — and have the pupils or some of them read from it in turn. 

16. Many teachers have the children come forward and face the 
class to read. In this way they get the idea that they are not reading to 
the teacher only. This helps also the serious fault of reading so low that 
they cannot be heard. 

17. Questions about what is read should be asked of various pupils 
other than those who read aloud, to see that the thought is being com- 
prehended. 

18. Common defects of speech, such as lisping, can be corrected 
if the teacher knows how to go about it. The principle of correction is 
to learn how the speech organs, tongue especially, should be placed to 
make the desired sound and have the child place them in that position 
when the effort is made. 

19. The teacher should read to the children, a portion daily, several 
of the best books each year, and have a list of books just as good to 
recommend to them to draw from the library and read themselves. 

20. In the upper grades the increasing tendency is to read a few 
longer selections — real classics — instead of a large number of short 
pieces or extracts from classics. Only the longer selections can possibly 
have sustained interest. Some of our late readers for the higher grades 
consist of a few such complete productions. Other classics are published 
in cheap form. 



8 9 

21. Every teacher of reading should be familiar with all that is 
said on the subject of reading in Monroe's Measuring the Results of 
Teaching (a Reading Circle bock for 1919-20). The most important part 
of this is the remedial measures to be taken when certain faults exist in 
the class. The faults can roughly be discovered without the scientific 
tests. Some reading classes have been improved nearly 100 per cent in 
a year by the use of these measures. 



LITERATURE 



1. Literature has to do with exceptionally beautiful or forceful 
expression in a language. The teaching of it should be largely a teach- 
ing of appreciation of selections which exhibit beauty and force. There 
is no proper teaching of literature by teaching the history of its develop- 
ment, who the authors were, something of their lives, the names of their 
writings, and what critics say of them. But the teaching of literature 
must include the reading of some of the beautiful and forceful selections 
themselves, with some attention to their beauty and force. This ex- 
planation is necessary as this syllabus is largely on the formal aspects 
of the subject, which are less important than the reading with ap- 
preciation. The development will be partly historical. 

2. The English language grew up in England out of several 
languages spoken by different groups of the people. These languages 
were Anglo-Saxon, Norman French, and Latin. The language at first 
was so different from present-day English that we cannot read it without 
learning how. It of course had no very fixed form at first but some 
literature was written in this Old English. (This is often called Middle 
English, the other term being for the first literature, which was Anglo- 
Saxon). 

3. By the time of Chaucer the language was more fixed and more 
like our present language. We have to have help on many words and 
expressions to read Chaucer. Learn two or three lines of Chaucer to 
illustrate this. The popularity of Chaucer's works, written 1360 to 1400. 
did much to settle the form of the language. But there was no print- 
ing in England until about 1476 (although engraved books earlier, a 
few ) . 

4. The Canterbury Tales is his greatest work. It pictures life of 
the period, for the pilgrims to Canterbury are leading types of the people 
of the day. They are described, and each tells a story true to some of 
his characteristics both in its selection and in the manner of tellling. 
Several of the pilgrims are women. We see also how people travelled. 
We have here an example of one element which makes literature good 
and permanent — it reflects correctly the thought and customs of the 
age. You should read of Chaucer's wide experince. 

5. The stories told by Chaucer were appropriated from various 
languages and times. A number of other writers, including Shakespeare, 
owed their greatness partly to wide acquaintance with the world's litera- 
ture. 

6. The religious element of literature reached the people more than 
writings for enjoyment. The first translation of the Bible into English 

90 



9i 

was completed by John Wyclif (with assistance) in 1384. Wyclif was a 
preacher (independent priest) and used in the translation the simple 
language of the common people. 

7. 150 years later, when England separated from the Catholic 
church, the Bible was translated into the changed language of that day. 
In 161 1 the "King James Version" was prepared from those mentioned 
above and from the Greek and Hebrew in which the Bible was originally 
written and from the Latin edition used by Catholic church. This King 
James Version was used by Protestant churches until very recently (still 
largely used). 

8. In Chaucer's time William Langland wrote the poem, "Piers, 
the Plowman." Piers is the perfectly good man, who scorns the Sins 
(who seem to be persons) and who tries to lead a frivolous world to 
useful work and to Truth. This was read sufficiently (there was no 
printing) for the common people to know of its contents. 

9. Miracle plays, using incidents in Old or New Testament, were 
written and were played by bands of players before there was any 
English drama proper. So also were morality plays in which truth, vice, 
temperance and other good and bad qualities are personified, somewhat 
as. in Piers, the Plowman. None of these was in good enough literary 
style for the authors (most of them unknown, and not many of the plays 
preserved) to be worthy of mention. 

10. Many old English ballads originated in the century after 
Chaucer's death in 1400. With these and the plays mentioned in No. 9 
the people were entertained and the language was refined although no 
great works were produced. 

11. By the time of Sir Thomas More (about 1500) the English 
language was approaching the modern form. At that time there reached 
England what is known as the Renaissance (pronounced re-nas'-ance or 
as in French). This was a spreading of scholarship, an awakening to 
what might be learned from other sources than those habitually used. 
Greek was read, experiments were tried, explorations were attempted, 
scholars conferrred with one another, old libraries were searched. The 
printing press had come into use and books could be produced in quantity 
and cheaply. 

12. Sir Thomas More wrote a famous prose book called Utopia. 
This is supposed to be an account of how people live in some far-away 
country, where they are all good, all help one another, all enjoy art and 
make everything as nearly perfect as possible. 

13. The Reformation, which in England meant at first separation 
from the central authority of the Church at Rome, dates from about 
1534. It later meant in England a change of doctrine and after, the 
denial of the right of church service except in the approved doctrine. It 
influenced literature by getting the people to read the Bible, tracts, ser- 
mons and arguments. (See No. 7.) 



92 

14- There was no very great literature produced between Chaucer 
and the age of Spenser, Shakespeare and Bacon (the time of Queen 
Elizabeth) and we shall mention no more of it. 

15. Spenser was a great genius. He wrote many styles of verse 
but his great work, the Faerie Queene, was in a type of verse he in- 
vented. He knew the literature of other lands, from which he got ideas 
for both thought and versification. The latter is quite perfect. His idea 
in the poem, that of depicting knights representing great virtues, as 
temperance, courtesy, was a noble one. His fault is the words he uses, 
many of which, were not then and never have been in current use. 
Elizabeth is the Faerie Queene who sends the knights forth. 

16. Elizabeth reigned 1558 to 1603. Spenser lived 1552-1599; 
Shakespeare 1564-1616; Bacon 1561-1625. The drama was being 
brought into form before Shakespeare wrote. His first employment in 
London was in its first theater. He first was an actor, and improved 
plays written by others. Some of his plays were modifications of those 
written by others and his plots were drawn from other literature, includ- 
ing Greek and Roman, from tradition, and from real history. 

17. Understand the meaning of drama, comedy, tragedy, sonnet. 
(Shakespeare wrote a number of the latter.) Learn a few facts about 
Shakespeare's life. (Not many are known.) Read carefully, at least, 
Merchant of Venice of the comedies, Julius Caesar of the historical plays, 
and Macbeth of the tragedies. Be able to tell something about the plots 
and vivid scenes. (These plays lack the delightful humor of some plays 
with which I wish you might be acquainted, but they are the best known.) 

18. Francis Bacon of Shakespeare's time was an essayist of great 
ability — the first prose writer of high rank. He wrote also on science, 
about which he did not know much, but which he helped a great deal 
by getting public attention for science. 

19. After Shakespeare's death there was a great struggle between 
the King, James I, (and his son Charles I) and his party and the Puri- 
tans. The latter gained the government in 1640 and soon closed all 
theaters. It is natural that religious men were the great writers of the 
period. These were John Milton and John Bunyan. (The Kings were 
restored in 1660. That date marks a change from Puritanism. Bunyan's 
works and Milton's greatest works were, however, finished after that 
date.) 

20. Milton, while a Puritan, had, like Spenser, wide acquaintance 
with the world and its literature. He had a fine education. Some of his 
writings were in prose and some in Latin but he is known today for his 
great poems "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained" and minor poems. 

21. The prime of life he spent as an official of the Puritan (Crom- 
well) government and lost his sight writing for it. He dictated these 
great poems when blind. The imagination, the wording, versification 



93 

and plot (amounting to an enlargement and interpretation of the Bible 
story of the creation and fall of Adam) are all wonderful. You should 
read at least a little of one of them. (Paradise Regained deals with 
man's Redemption.) 

22. The other great writer, Bunyan, had little education, and de- 
rived his ability to write from the language of the Bible and his use of it 
in preaching. (His occupation was that of tinker.) For preaching with- 
out authority, after the restoration (of the kingship) and the reaction 
from Puritanism, he was imprisoned for 12 years and during that time 
wrote Pilgrim's Progress. This depicts in story form the journey 
through life to heaven. Every teacher should read it. 

23. No writer of first rank is probably so little of the acquaintance 
of most of us as John Dryden. At the time of Milton's death (1674) 
Dryden was 43 years of age and was just gaining prominence. From 
then to his death in 1700 he held first place, although he lost the position 
of "poet laureate" when James II was driven from the throne and 
William and Mary became sovereigns. He wrote mostly on political and 
religious themes in poetry, and on literary themes in prose. His poetry 
was very exact in form and his exactness continued to be the fashion 
for a century. His poem, "Alexander's Feast," found in many readers 
is not in his usual formal style. He wrote also dramas in both poetry 
and prose, the theaters having been reopened. 

24. Of eighteenth century writers we shall mention by name Swift, 
Addison, Pope, Johnson, Goldsmith, Burke and Defoe. All of these 
except Addison (who died at the age of 41 when Johnson was a boy) 
and Defoe (who died before Johnson was well known) were acquainted 
with one another, and Addison and Burke with other writers were in a 
literary club with Samuel Johnson at the head. Burke and Addison were 
prominent in political life. Swift was a clergyman also. Pope was 
financially fortunate. Johnson and Goldsmith were at times, the latter 
nearly always, in poverty. 

25. Defoe is known to us as writer of Robinson Crusoe, the great 
book of adventure. He was a journalist and knew about many adven- 
tures. Robinson Crusoe is read as much now as 200 years ago. It 
shows ideal patience, courage, ingenuity and prudence in very real situa- 
tions. He took up real stories (in this case that of Alexander Selkirk) 
and expanded them into more complete stories, still preserving the same 
reality. 

26. Goldsmith is best known to us for his splendid novel The 
Vicar of Wakefield. This was his only novel. He wrote much. His 
beautiful poem, The Deserted Village, and his pay, She Stoops to Con- 
quer, are best known. 

27. Swift is known to us mostly by Gulliver's Travels, imaginary 
travels to lands where tiny people lived, and others where giants, horses 



94 

with human intelligence and other curious things were found. He wrote 
many other things, some of them political, and mostly satirical (as indeed 
are Gulliver's Travels, though we read them without thinking of it). 

28. Pope was a second Dryden in correctness of form of poetry. 
He was not in the current of events, because of being a Catholic and of 
being feeble from childhood. His poetry lacks interest in nature, human- 
ity or religion. It is much given to satire. It is little read now except 
his splendid translation, in verse, of the great Greek epic poem of Homer, 
The Iliad, and parts of the translation of the great Greek epic poem of 
Homer, The Odyssey. (The translation of all of the Odyssey was pub- 
lished by Pope, but the translating of much of it was by other persons.) 

29. Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley papers are read most. His 
writings, particularly early writings were largely political. He was a 
champion of the Whigs. Addison is regarded as one of the best models 
for clearness of style and other good qualities of prose writing. He 
tried to. do everything in writing and in life the best it could possibly 
be done. 

30. Though Johnson was the center of the group (see No. 24) he 
is least read now. He wrote powerful but not graceful sentences (as a 
rule). He prepared our first dictionary. He was a wonderful conver- 
sationalist. The last 21 years of his life James Boswell followed him 
about and got him to express himself on all questions. Johnson was un- 
aware that he was writing down the incidents and sayings, to publish 
them after Johnson's death in the greatest biography ever written. 

31. Edmund Burke you all know as the champion of the rights of 
America in his "Speech on Conciliation" in 1775. He is far less eloquent 
in this, however, than in his speeches about the treatment of India. It 
is unfortunate that his legal and political duties did not give him time 
to write more. His literary gifts were great and his sympathies world- 
wide. He warned, however, against the idea of the French Revolution 
and checked English sympathy with it. 

32. To the eighteenth century but outside the general current (see 
No. 24), belong Thomas Gray and Robert Burns. The former, a Cam- 
bridge professor, wrote "An Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" 
which is one of the most loved poems in the language. 

33. Robert Burns composed verses as he ploughed in the fields. 
They were of nature as he saw it about him and of the country folk 
and their sentiments, belief and traditions. He used the (lowland) 
Scotch dialect. In spite of, or partly because of, the quaint dialect they 
won immediate fame in Scotland as well as England as soon as published. 
Burns is one of those great poets of the people whose appeal is to the 
heart exclusively. You should be acquainted with at least The Cotter's 
Saturday Night and A Man's a Man for a' That. 



95 

34- The poets of the earlier nineteenth century include Coleridge, 
Wordsworth, Scott, Keats, Shelley and Byron as the ones of probably 
the most lasting importance. Coleridge is known to most of us by The 
Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Wordsworth furnished part of the story 
and they started to write the poem together. 

35. William Wordsworth accomplished much more. He is usually 
considered England's greatest nature poet as Bryant is America's. He 
was born near the "Lake region" with which Scott was also familiar. 
Here he lived, after some foreign travel, to the age of eighty. His poems 
show great feeling for human nature as well as nature. To a Skylark, 
We are Seven, and The Two April Mornings, are representatives of his 
shorter poems. 

36. Sir Walter Scott (mentioned later in No. 46 — among the 
novelists) first made his reputation with his poems on themes of Scot- 
land's earlier days (which are employed in his novels also). The Lady 
of the Lake is the most popular of them (written about 1810). 

37. Byron was by inheritance a member of the British House of 
Lords. Yet most of his writing was done while he was a traveller or 
resident abroad. And his writings are noted for his attacks on the short- 
comings of the existing social order. These were mostly indirectly, in 
the words of characters in his poems, or by satire through them. He 
also pressed his own feelings in his works to the point of great egotism. 
We know best his beautiful poem Childe Harold with its descriptions 
of the historic spots of southern Europe and Asia. His death at 36 
was of fever when leading a Greek army against the Turks. 

38. Though Shelley died at the age of 30 (drowned when a little 
sailboat capsized near the Italian coast) and Keats at 25 (of consump- 
tion while spending the winter in Italy), they are celebrated for the won- 
derful beauty of their poems. Ode to a Skylark is a fair sample of 
Shelley, and To a Nightingale, of Keats. 

39. The greatest English literary geniuses, in other fields than the 
novel, of the nineteenth century were Macaulay, Carlyle, Tennyson, 
Browning and Ruskin. We will also mention but not discuss further. 
Mrs. Browning and Matthew Arnold. Herbert Spenser should be men- 
tioned also as a great scientist and writer on science and related subjects. 

40. Macaulay had one of the most marvelous minds of all time. 
He could repeat Paradise Lost and many other shorter literary works. 
He was a great statesman and did much good aside from literature. He 
wrote splendid poetry (of which Horatius at the Bridge is a sample) and 
most marvelous prose. His History of England, though it covers only 
15 years of English history, (1685 to 1700), exhibits the greatest re- 
search and in 5 volumes gives details with dramatic vividness. As a 
prose writer he is unequalled in any age or language. In your high 
school classics you have perhaps read his essays on Milton and Johnson. 



9 6 

These do not show him at his best. Read his Warren Hastings. His 
oratory was as great as his writings. 

41. Macaulay took things as they were and in high public life tried 
to better them. Carlyle wanted to reform them altogether. He believed 
great men should not only lead but even control. His great work, The 
French Revolution, was more warning than history. You should read 
at least one part of Heroes and Hero Worship or a chapter of The 
French Revolution to appreciate his wonderful but very unusual style. 
He lived apart from public life, but well known, to the age of 86. 
(Died 1881.) Macaulay died at 59 in 1859. 

42. The other great prose writer was Ruskin. He wrote much on 
art and architecture. You have perhaps read selections from his Sesame 
and Lilies. (Not on art or architecture of course. Sesame is of three 
syllables with first e short.) 

43. The great nineteenth century English poets are Tennyson and 
Browning. The latter's writings are so difficult that many of them 
should not be undertaken by an ordinary person except with the help of 
a teacher (and not many teachers have the preparation for that). Not 
a dozen of you will ever read his longest work The Ring and the Book ; 
but I ask you to read Pippa Passes. Browning's life was a fine example 
of English manhood, wholesome, helpful, religious. He lived to the age 
of 77. (Died 1889.) 

44. Tennyson is a writer of whom most of us know a great deal. 
His Locksley Hall, The Princess (with the songs between the parts), 
The Charge of the Light Brigade, The Idylls of the King, In Memoriam 
and Crossing the Bar are well known to all students. You should be 
able to tell something about each of these. He became "poet laureate" on 
Wordsworth's death in 1850. He was not married until that year. Quite 
a number of his poems celebrate England's triumphs. All have patriot- 
ism and a hopeful outlook into the future. He died in 1892 at age 83, 
famous throughout the world. 

45. We shall now mention the great novelists of the 18th century 
and (except Goldsmith) the first great novelists — Scott, Dickens, 
Thackeray and "George Eliot." Sir Walter Scott has already been in- 
cluded among the great poets. About 181 4 he turned from poetry to 
the novel. He is a historical novelist, building his novels about or in- 
cluding in them historical events. His earlier novels used Scottish his- 
tory. Scott built him a splendid mansion at Abbotsford in Scotland, but 
the publishing firm in which he was interested failed and he worked him- 
self to death (at 61) to pay the debts (but did it — $250,000). 

46. Scott's Ivanhoe treats of the period of the return of Richard I 
(the Lion-Hearted) after imprisonment on the Continent. Kcnilworth 
deals with the efforts of Leicester, Queen Elizabeth's prime minister, to 
become her husband. The Abbot deals with Mary, Queen of Scots. 



97 

Rob Roy, Waverley and other novels deal with the Scotch clans. He 
wrote about 25 novels, all valuable. 

47. Charles Dickens was himself an oppressed child, and had to 
work in a factory while his parents were in jail for debt. Most of his 
novels deal with social wrongs of some kinds at least in places. Most 
of them have striking- children. The novels are noted for persons with 
amusing peculiarities. 

48. His Tale of Two Cities treats of the French Revolution, the 
cities being London and Paris but the scene mostly in Paris. David 
Copperfield, Nicholas Nickleby, Oliver Twist and Old Curiosity Shop 
are read most. 

49. No author was ever so popular in his life time as Dickens, 
He worked himself to death trying to satisfy the demands of the public 
for his lectures and readings. (Died 1870 at age 58.) Yet he had no 
more schooling than John Bunyan. 

50. Vanity Fair is probably the most read of Thackeray's novels. 
He was contemporaneous with Dickens and some critics consider him the 
greater novelist. Henry Esmond is considered his masterpiece. It is 
partly a historical novel, dealing with the period of Queen Anne and in- 
cluding the victories of the Duke of Marlborough in France. 

51. George Eliot was the nom de plume of Mary Ann Evans 
(afterward Mrs. Lewes and later Mrs. Cross.) Her talents were as 
wonderful as those of Dickens and Thackeray. Silas Marner has been 
read by almost every one. Adam Bede and Romola are also widely read. 
The latter is a very intricate story, but great in imagination, character 
development, and expression, and very popular. It deals with Roman life 
in the latter part of the fifteenth century. 

52. Rudyard Kipling is far the most famous of the later English 
writers. He succeeded in both poetry and prose. His works treated 
especially adventures and military life. (The Jungle Book, Barrack 
Room Ballads.) He was well acquainted with India and other distant 
British possessions and incorporated this knowedge into his works. 
"Captains Courageous," curiously, is not written of English army cap- 
tains but of the captains of the fishing boats which go along the banks 
from Gloucester, Massachusetts. This is a mark of Mr. Kipling's five 
years of residence in New England. 

53. Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, famous for his "The Last Days 
of Pompeii", wrote about fifty novels. He is a representative of the 
numerous modern novelists who possess a style which is not especially 
remarkable but are able to construct such plots (often partly historical) 
as gain them a large reading public and in many cases long or permanent 
fame. 

54. J. M. Barrie has revived in novel the Scotch dialect and char- 
acter. His most noted book is "The Little Minister." 

*7 



98 

55- Robert Louis Stevenson is noted as a great children's poet as 
well as a great novelist. His best known novels are "Treasure Island", 
a story of pirates and adventures, and "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde", the 
story of a man known as a good man under the name of Dr. Jekyll and 
as a wicked man under the name of Mr. Hyde. Some of the child's 
poems are in our readers, among them "My Shadow," "The Land of 
Counterpane." "The Swing," "My Kingdom." In quest of health, 
Stevenson lived for some time in California and in the Adirondacks, and 
finally died in the Samoan Isands at age 44 after working for fourteen 
years in miserable health. 

56. A. Conan Doyle is the best representative of writers of 
"detective" stories — stories of the solutions of mysteries and crimes. 
Hundreds of writers have invented thousands of such stories in the last 
50 years, but only a few have generally accepted merit — literary quality, 
a gripping plot, and freedom from objectionable moral attitude. 

57. H. G. Wells best represents another class of modern writers 
— those who keep in touch with great scientific achievements and possi- 
bilities so as to build plots on strange supposed achievements through 
science. Wells has produced also a compendium of history of great 
merit. 

58. American literature did not arise independently through a 
forming language but is an offshoot of English literature, one of the two 
branches into which it was split by the intervention of the ocean and 
eventually of a different government. We are inclined to give it more 
attention because it is written more fully from the standpoint we most 
appreciate. America has produced no dramatist like Shakespeare or 
epic poet like Milton and perhaps no prose writers equal to Macaulay or 
Carlyle, but it takes centuries to produce a few such men. But the list 
of American authors includes some poets, essayists and novelists of first 
rank. Less comment will be made on them in this syllabus because short 
treatises of the ground covered are easily available. 

59. The literature of America up to near the Revolution was cir- 
cumscribed by the possibilities of a pioneer country dependent largely 
upon the fatherland. Franklin's Autobiography was the most lasting 
production. It covers only his earlier life, not touching his great public 
career. 

60. Irving, Cooper and Bryant were the first American authors of 
strictly literary work to gain wide eminence. They are spoken of as 
of the Knickerbocker, that is, the New York group. Irving is perhaps 
known best to us by his Sketch Book, although The Alhambra (tales of 
old Spanish days) and The Life of Washington are of the highest merit. 
Of the stories in the Sketch Book the best known are Rip Van Winkle 
and Sleepy Hollow. The majority of these stories are not of American 



99 

traditions or places and persons, however, and were written during long 
residence abroad. 

. .61. James Fenimore Cooper was a historical novelist on American 
themes. The Pilot utilizes his own several years at sea. The Spy and 
The Last of the Mohicans are great tales of adventure, scouting and 
Indians. He wrote a number of other successful historical novels. They 
have been censured by critics both as to plot and style. They, neverthe- 
less, have some very attractive characters and very interesting exploits 
and give good pictures of pioneer history. 

62. Cooper died in 1851, Irving in 1859, Bryant the poet of the 
period lived until 1878. Bryant was most industrious and for 52 years 
was editor of the New York Post (daily paper) while he wrote nature 
poetry as a side line. He was also famous as a lecturer and took much 
interest in the issues of the civil war. His Thanatopsis (written in 
his youth) is known to all. Autumn Woods, A Forest Hymn and Robert 
of Lincoln are more exclusively nature poems. 

63. R. W. Emerson, born 1803, died 1882, is regarded by many as 
the greatest writer America has produced. He was a prose writer; his 
writings are mostly essays ; they have both a finished and delightful 
style; they are original in thought. They enforce his view that people 
should have individuality in their opinions and ways of doing but that 
men should discharge the purposes for which God has placed them here. 
A number of his essays have doubtless come to the student's notice. 

64. Nathaniel Hawthorne (lived 1804 to 1864) produced his first 
great novel, The Scarlet Letter, in 1850. The House of Seven Gables, 
which many of you have read, was written 1851. The Marble Faun, 
published 1859, ^ s considered his masterpiece, but its characters are not 
American and it is less popular and perhaps less wholesome than The 
House of Seven Gables. His novels are not historical. They are char- 
acter novels. He has in each a well-intentioned but unfortunate char- 
acter, and a highly respected but narrow character who plays the part of 
an oppressor. His "Twice-told Tales" are as well known as his novels. 

65. Edgar Allen Poe lived 1809 to 1849 and so was more nearly 
contemporaneous with Irving, Cooper, Bryant and Hawthorne than with 
Emerson, Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier and Holmes. Poe is given first 
place among American writers by many foreign critics. His work was 
highly finished. He believed literature should be beautiful. His "The 
Bells" and "Annabel Lee" are good examples of what he could do in 
poetry. He wrote many wonderful short stories with more weird sit- 
uations than those in Hawthorne's novels. Such are The Fall of the 
House of Usher and The Gold Bug. 

66. We perhaps appreciate more highly Longfellow, Whittier and 
Lowell and to some extent Holmes because they had some mission in 
writing, seeking to make men or the world better. Whittier and Lowell 



IOO 

(as also Bryant) were strongly against slavery. Some of their best 
work in poetry deals with this subject, particularly Lowell's The Present 
Crisis and Bigelow Papers, the latter in New England rural dialect 
(mostly in poetic form.) 

67. Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal shows him as a teacher of 
morality not confined to the events of any one period. He spent many 
years as U. S. minister to Spain and England and was an effective 
diplomat. He was also a professor of modern languages at Harvard 
and wrote much fine literary criticism. He died in 189 1. 

68. As suggested above some of Whittier's poems grew out of the 
agitation against slavery. Others tell stories of early New England life. 
Snowbound, the greatest, was of New England life in his own day. We 
know best his short poems, The Barefoot Boy and Barbara Frietchie. 
He lived until 1892. 

69. Longfellow seems most beloved of all poets by American 
school children. Hiawatha and The Village Blacksmith would be suf- 
ficient reasons if we did not have A Psalm of Life, Evangeline, The 
Courtship of Miles Standish, The Children's Hour, The Rainy Day and 
Excelsior also. You should know something of his life if you do not al- 
ready. He became a professor of modern languages in Bowdoin Col- 
lege at the age of 22 after graduation and three years of study in Europe 
and later was professor in Harvard College. At the age of fifty he gave 
up his teaching to which until then he had devoted much of his time. 
He died ten years before Whittier. The picture of his home in Cam- 
bridge is in many of our books Here he received thousands of callers 
in his later years. 

70. Oliver Wendell Holmes was a physician and professor in a 
medical college and only incidentally a poet. He would have written 
less poetry if he had not been urged to write for special occasions, and 
less prose if Lowell had not urged him to write for the Atlantic Monthly 
of which Lowell was editor. For this he wrote The Autocrat of the 
Breakfast-Table, The Professor at the Breakfast-Table, The Poet at 
the Breakfast-Table and Over the Teacups, which are full of witty 
philosophy. Among his popular poems are Old Ironsides and the One- 
Hoss Shay. He died in 1894 at the age of 85. 

71. Walt Whitman was a singular writer who claimed to be the 
poet of the common people. Most of his writings are without any regular 
rhythm and are not poetry in the ordinary sense. He set up and printed 
his first verses himself at the age of 36. He was poisoned later while 
nursing in a Civil war army hospital and became worse and worse from 
it although he lived 25 years after the war. O Captain! My Captain!, 
written on the death of Lincoln, is in regular verse and is best known. 
His fame became wide. His peculiar poetry ( ?) is being imitated by 
present writers who are given space by some of our strong magazines. 



IOI 

72. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) has a firm place in our 
literature with his humorous stories. Tom Sawyer and Huckelberry 
Finn are best known. He wrote accounts of his travels in the west and 
elsewhere as a basis for humorous expression and anecdote. 

y$. W. D. Howells, born in Ohio, wrote mostly in New York. He 
wrote successful verse and stories of travel and a number of novels. 

74. Winston Churchill (born 1871 ) has gained the favor of al- 
most the entire English reading public with his novels which are mostly 
historical, such as Richard Carvel, dealing with English characters of 
the Revolutionary period, The Crossing, with the filling up of our middle 
west. 

75. In the multitude of other recent, and many of them living, 
American writers it is difficult to determine who are most worthy of 
mention and whose fame will be most permanent. In a single recent year 
more new books appeared in America than in the 250 years up to 1850 

— and we have omitted many worthy authors of note of the most recent 
period. 

76. James Whitcomb Riley, (recently deceased) of Indiana, was a 
poet of the heart and of common life. The Old Swimmin' Hole, An Old 
Sweetheart of Mine and When the Frost is on the Pumpkin, are among 
our favorites. 

yy. It is hoped that you have some acquaintance with at least the 
following authors; one work of each of whom is here mentioned: John 
Burroughs (died 192 1) — -Signs and Seasons; Henry James — An In- 
ternational Episode ; Henry Van Dyke — The Spirit of America ; Ed- 
ward Everett Hale — The Man Without a Country; F. Marion Craw- 
ford — Saracinesca (He wrote largely on Italian and other foreign char- 
acters) ; Kate Douglas Wiggin (Mrs. Riggs) — Rebecca of Sunnybrook 
Farm; Joel Chandler Harrris — Tales of Uncle Remus; Mary Johnston 

— To Have and to Hold; O. Henry (Sydney Porter) — -Cabbages and 
Kings ; Harold Bell Wright — The Shepherd of the Hills ; Alice Hegan 
Rice — Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch. 



SPELLING 

i. The first consideration is spelling is word selection. Words used 
by ordinary children and adults are the ones to be learned — not words 
we seldom read or hear. 

2. Some of the recent spelling books have been built up with this 
in mind — some have been made from definite studies of children's com- 
positions, the letters of adults and newspapers 

3. A teacher needs to have definite ideas of the minimum the 
children should attain in spelling. Such should not be attained by guess- 
ing. Every teacher should secure a copy of Buckingham's Extension of 
the Ayres Spelling Scale. For this send 15 cents (stamps will do) to 
the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. This shows, for 
example, that on list N an eighth grade should make 100 per cent, a 
seventh grade 98, a sixth grade 94, a third grade 58. The following 
contains every tenth word of the list in column N: else, death, always, 
evening, November, person, among, October, laugh, village. Besides 
knowing these in N an eighth grade should make 100 on all the columns 
before it. It should average 50 on column Z of which the following in- 
cludes every third word : allege, eliminate, extraordinary, parallel, receipt. 

4. The spelling lists for the teachers' examination will be taken 
from the various columns of the above publication. Failure of the 
teacher examined to attain the eighth grade standard "mill be a failure in 
the examination. 

5. The spelling words selected by the teacher should be to some 
extent an outgrowth of the lessons in other subjects. But the teacher 
should not insist too much on the spelling of every proper noun (such 
as Chimborazo, Kosciusko, Caribbean). To know these is convenient 
but not absolutely essential. It is much more important to know how 
to spell and to spell with invariable correctness such words as biscuit, 
Tuesday, monkey, people. The same caution should be given against 
overworking the spelling of technical words used in agriculture, physi- 
ology, grammar and physical geography. 

6. Some carefully prepared spelling books propose but two new 
words a day. It is doubtful whether this keeps up the interest. The 
teacher can perhaps supply a few more and the greater number be 
learned better than the smaller. 

7. With little children new words should be written, spelled orally 
by letter, erased, and then a child called upon to spell orally. The im- 
mediate recall does more to fix the words than repeated writings, or 

102 



103 

any number of oral repetitions with the word before the child. This 
is a good method in higher grades if there is time. If the children can 
then further write each word down from recall after the oral recall 
he will have gone far toward learning it. 

8. In the first grade before names of letters are used in calling 
words there should be no spelling as such. Writing of words — not to be 
done at all the first few weeks — should be mere imitation — drawing 
the word forms. 

9. The spelling recitation in the lowest grades should be more oral 
than written. Oral spelling should be only occasional in the higher 

grades. "Head-mark" spelling as usually conducted is worth little. There 
is little rivalry or drill in it. There is not enough selection of words. 
There is no adaptation to individual needs. A method (headmark, match 
or otherwise) should be devised, when there is an oral spelling lesson 
that will encourage the best efforts of as many children as possible. 

10. No words should be spelled of which the children do not com- 
prehend the meaning. Spelling words which have no meaning to a child 
on the ground that some time he will use the word and know its mean- 
ing is pedagogically unsound. This does not mean that the child must 
always be able to give a full definition or even an accurately worded 
definition. It merely means that he must have a concept of the meaning 
commonest, or at present in your or his mind. There are many words 
of which you or I do not know all the definitions but of which we have 
in mind the more common senses. 

11. The real test of a child's spelling ability is his spelling of words 
in compositions, letters, etc., when the thing said is the primary thing in 
mind. No children spell quite so well then as when writing lists. Yet 
that is the natural connection in which spelling is used in life. Some 
spelling lessons should, therefore, he dictation exercises in which the 
words they are learning or have learned occur. 

12. Also the spelling of children in their language lessons, geog- 
raphy and history should be watched to determine on what words to 
give further drill. On some of these only a small per cent of the class 
will need drill. It is, therefore, recommended that each child keep a little 
book, preferably with a page for words beginning with a, one for those 
beginning with b, etc., in which he is to enter the words he misses in his 
written work. 

13. The prime need in spelling is that the children realize that it is 
to meet their need in life, not to pass an examination, and that they have 
a real desire to get their spelling correct. This is worth more than, any 
amount of drill and review. 

14. There should, however, be plenty of review, first at close in- 
tervals (one or two days), then at longer intervals. The words reviewed 
most should be those missed most, or of most inherent difficulty. 



104 

15- One hundred words most frequently misspelled are listed in 
many of our books as the "one hundred demons." Most of these are 
so common, so frequently used in all written compositions, that it is a 
severe reflection on our teaching if we have to keep drilling on them 
eight or even five years. Several of them need review throughout the 
grades. 

16. It is generally recommended that there be some daily review 
through writing words in lists or spelling them orally, some review every 
few days by dictation exercises, each of these in connection with the 
regular lesson which has a few new words; and then that about every 
ten days there be a more general review. The lists written following this 
review should be carefully marked. The words used which are in the 
Buckingham scale should be given out first and the results on them 
checked with the scale standards. Less importance should be attached 
to the results with the other words. 

t~. In rural schools from fourth grade up two or more grades 
may be put together in spelling if you keep from proper and technical 
words not used by them in common. 

18. Where review of spelling words is here mentioned I do not 
mean merely retesting but the assignment of the words to be rclcarncd, 
in case of course recall is imperfect. Assignment of lessons is one of 
the greatest imperfections in the plan of instruction pursued by most 
teachers. Children must have a definite and possible assignment and a 
motive for mastering it. 

19. The children need to learn to use the dictionary. But this can 
probably be attained best when the word sought is a word in a sentence, 
so that a meaning fit for that sentence is sought. The meaning of words 
in the spelling lessons should be in mind without recourse to the diction- 
ary unless the words are presented in sentences. This latter is a good 
occasional plan. But the dictionary for meaning is to be used mostly 
in connection with reading. 

20. The children must also learn the key to pronunciation in the 
dictionaries. This should probably be taken up in connection with spell- 
ing and reading both. They should be required to mark the easier 
diacritical marks and after their mastery the harder ones. There is much 
disagreement among teachers as to how far or how thoroughly this 
work should be taken up in either reading or spelling. Better do thor- 
oughly what is done and not undertake too much diacritical work. 

21. Yon will be expected to be able to mark correctly words of 
moderate -ability according to either the Webster or Laird and Lee code 
(one, not both of them) found in the school editions of the respective 
dictionaries. 

22. The rules for spelling, except that for ie and ei after c, 1, r 
(which is seldom taught,) and that for changing y to i for plurals, for 



third person and for past tense (which is never taught in its complete 
form) are of little value. One cannot stop in writing to recall and apply 
a rule. Besides the rules have exceptions, and it is still more difficult to 
recall whether the case before us is not one of the exceptions. Thirty 
minutes of time in the eight years is probably all that spelling rules can 
be given with real returns. 



HANDWRITING 



1. Small children should write large so as not to strain small 
muscles and eyes. 

2. Their first writing should be at the blackboard, making small 
letters about three inches high. Better first make ovals and then letters 
between ruled lines. 

3. First writing on paper should be large — small letters about an 
inch high — with large soft lead on ruled paper — better specially ruled 
with an inch between lines. The size should be gradually reduced up 
to the fourth grade. 

4. Position for writing at the seat should be according to some 
standard manual but children should not be corrected much except for 
positively bad position. Some teachers say they spend most of the writ- 
ing period the first year on position. That is ridiculous. 

5. In holding the pencil the right thumb should be bent at the 
joint and kept bent. This helps prevent finger-movement. If it does 
not nothing else will. 

6. Some individuality should be allowed in holding the pencil. 
Study what variations promote finger movement and try to have them 
corrected. An easy sliding of the right hand, perhaps on third or fourth 
fingers bent under, and the manipulation of the paper by the left hand 
will help. Below the fifth grade children should probably not be directed 
to use arm movement but everything should be done to make that their 
natural mode. 

7. In the fifth they should start more consciously movement exer- 
cises with the purpose of developing their own best writing. Progress 
should then be rapid. They should not have to be confined long to one 
or two exercises. 

8. Speed and rhythm should be developed from the first — even in 
the initial blackboard exercises. A good speed should be constantly re- 
quired. The teacher should practice counting or naming at proper rate 
letters or movements (as up, down, slant, cross). 

9. The real test of a pupil's writing is his writing outside of the 
writing class. Many use good movement and attain pretty good form in 
the writing class but do neither in a written geography lesson. The pupil 
must be rated in writing more by what he does in a short dictation exer- 
cise than by his copybook. 

10. Imitation of the copybook copy is helpful if it is done with 
proper movement and speed. Much of the trouble in writing comes from 
holding the pupils to slow speed on the copybooks, a speed which they 

106 



107 

have to increase in the other studies or fail to get their thoughts on paper. 
Most of the copybooks of Ohio are only half filled at the close of the 
year. Beter increase the speed and the amount of practice. 

ii. There is danger of imitating the copy less as the bottom of 
the page is approached. One writing system has a copy which slides 
down. This is a great help. 

12. The teacher must herself master the art of writing — move- 
ment, speed, form — and must learn the points about the different 
strokes, ovals and joinings so she can analyze defects and help the 
children. 

13. The teacher should learn about standard handwriting scales. 
These are explained in recent method books and books on tests and 
measurements. The Ayres Handwriting Scale should be obtained from 
The Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. (Send 5 cents for it.) 
Applicants for certificates who do not make 50 by that scale will fail 
in the test. 

14. The work mentioned in No. 7 will be largely motivated if the 
scale is posted and children measure their standing and improvement 
from that time by comparison with the scale. It would be still better 
for each county to construct its own scale. 



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